Are Buddhist Ethics Open to Cultural Modification?

The Essential Place of Ethical Training in Buddhism

In transmitting Buddhism from one society to another, one needs to be able to identify the essential teachings so as to differentiate them from their cultural envelope. On his deathbed, Buddha indicated the criterion for so doing, as recorded in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra (mDo mya-ngan-las ’das chen-po). He told his assembled disciples to let his teachings (the Dharma) and the rules of discipline (the Vinaya) be their guide after his passing from this world. When asked how to know which of his teachings conveyed the most important points, Shakyamuni warned not to let this be decided in the future by the opinion of teachers or the consensus of the monastic community. Rather, this should be determined, he said, by gaining confidence about what is most essential by noting what appears repeatedly in the teachings and texts. The four noble truths, two true phenomena, love, compassion, the eightfold path, and three higher trainings are prominent points stressed throughout the teachings. By Buddha’s own guideline, there can be no doubt that these are fundamental features. It would therefore be inappropriate to eliminate or modify their central role, regardless of culture. Nevertheless, Buddha also said not to believe anything he said just out of faith, but to analyze and test it like when testing gold. In other words, we need to base our acceptance of what Buddha repeatedly taught based on analysis and logic, not on mere faith.

Since the observance of ethical self-discipline (tshul-khrims, Skt. śīla), as one of the three higher trainings in discipline, concentration, and discriminating awareness (shes-rab, Skt. prajñā, wisdom), is an indispensable aspect of Buddhism, it is important to understand what exactly ethical self-discipline means, what role it plays on the spiritual path and why it is important. Ethical self-discipline is explained as being a mental factor, or state of mind, with which we safeguard our bodies, speech, and minds, keeping them in check, usually through the medium of observing vows and following precepts (guidelines for behavior). All forms of Buddhism repeatedly stress safeguarding our body, speech, and mind by refraining from destructive physical, verbal, and mental actions. With the aim of liberation, we seek to avoid any act that will create problems and suffering for ourselves.

The Mahayana schools of Buddhism emphasize, in addition, refraining from actions that are destructive in the sense of either being directly harmful to others or indirectly harmful to ourselves, preventing us from helping others fully. Actions that hurt others have negative consequences on us as well. Thus, non-Mahayana forms of Buddhism also teach avoiding causing harm to others. Although part of the motivation for so doing is love and compassion, the emphasis is on the wish to avoid the negative repercussions on ourselves. Other aspects of ethical self-discipline in Mahayana are guarding our activities to ensure that they are construc­tive – constructive in the sense of either being directly helpful to others or indirectly helpful to ourselves in that they contribute to our own ability to be of full benefit. Let us focus our discus­sion on the first type of ethical self-discipline, however, the one that is common to all traditions of Buddhism, refraining from destructive behavior.

Exercising self-control so as not to act destructively is, in a general Buddhist context, based on the frame of mind with which we reject not only causing harm by our actions but, on a deeper level, causing harm by our lack of awareness (ma-rigs-pa, Skt. avidyā, ignorance) and disturbing emotions and attitudes (nyon-mongs, Skt. kleśa, afflictions), which are what cause us to act in a harmful manner. At the beginning, we strive with will-power and self-control to minimize being under the influence of these debilitating mental states. Then, the further we progress in our training in higher ethical self-discipline, the stronger the foundation becomes for the other two higher trainings in concentration and discriminating awareness that can eliminate completely the causes of the problem. This foundation is cemented with mindfulness (dran-pa, Skt. smṛti) and alertness (shes-bzhin, Skt. saṃprajanya), two mental factors that we develop by remaining ever conscious of what we are doing, saying, and thinking, always differentiating between what is helpful and harmful.

On a deeper level, by identifying and refraining from destructive features in our gross behavior, we gain the training and strength that enable us to notice and restrain our minds from giving way to flightiness, dullness, and other subtle deviations detrimental for attaining absorbed concentration (ting-nge-’dzin, Skt. samādhi). With perfect concentration and a correct understanding of the four noble truths and the two true phenomena – appearances, which are like an illusion, and voidness (stong-pa-nyid, Skt. śūnyatā; emptiness) – we can remain focused on the lack of true identities or of impossible “souls” (bdag-med, Skt. nairātmya; identitylessness, selflessness) and thereby eliminate the deepest cause of our suffering and bring liberation. Thus, from several points of view, ethical training plays a central role in the Buddhist path.

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