LTF 5: The 32 Excellent Signs of a Buddha’s Enlightening Body

As for the source of these qualities in the scriptural texts, we find this information in the Pali Canon of the Theravadan tradition, specifically in the Lakkhana Sutta (the Sutra of the Excellent Signs). “Lakkhana” is the Pali word for these excellent signs, which is “lakshna” in Sanskrit. This sutra is found in the Digha Nikaya (the Long Discourses of the Buddha,) which is one division of the Pali suttas. In the Mahayana literature, we find one listing of these qualities in the Abhisamayalamkara (Filigree of Realizations) by Maitreya. This text is derived from the Prajnaparamita Sutras. Nagarjuna, himself, in his text Ratnavali (the Precious Garland), which is another text that he wrote for King Udayibhadra, lists with only very minor variations this list of the 32 marks found in Abhisamayalamkara.

We find another variation of these 32 signs in the Uttaratantra (Furthest Everlasting Continuum), which is another text by Maitreya. There, the list is derived from another sutra called the Sutra Requested by the Maiden Ratna. These lists are pretty much the same except that the latter mentioned combines some of the features – two features combined into one – and also adds three extra features. The Pali list has a slight variation from the one that is found in the Abhisamayalamkara, but it resembles that one the most. Here, we will follow the list from Abhisamayalamkara since that’s the main one that is studied by the Tibetans and the one that Nagarjuna, himself, pretty much reproduces in his text Precious Garland. We can see that this is not an exclusively Mahayana topic; we find it in the Hinayana literature as well. 

The way that I’ll present the lists here, so as not to take a very long time, is to just list them and give the causes for them. As I said, I think the important point here is what the causes of the physical features of a Buddha are, not so much the results, since the whole point of the results is to indicate what the causes for them were. 

It’s also interesting to look at the difference between sutra and tantra in Mahayana. In tantra, they say that by visualizing ourselves as having the body of a Buddha, we build up the causes for having a Body of a Buddha that are much closer to the result or that resemble the result much more than in the sutra method because we imagine actually having that form already. On the sutra level, what we do to create the causes for obtaining the body of a Buddha is to practice the causes. These causes are vaguely similar to the results – we can see in most cases how the result resembles the cause; however, the result is much more remote than the tantric method. 

It’s on this ground that the explanation is usually given for why sutra is called the “causal vehicle” and tantra is called the “resultant vehicle.” Either one practices by building up the causes for obtaining the physical body of the Buddha, or one practices by visualizing oneself as already having achieved that result. 

[1] The first feature: On the sole of each of a Buddha’s feet and on the palm of each of a Buddha’s hands is the impression of a thousand-spoked wheel. The cause for this is a Buddha always having greeted and escorted his spiritual mentor and having had a selfless attitude of offering personal service to others. It’s very interesting that in the Mahayana presentation, the first item here is serving the teacher – going out to greet the teacher and escorting the teacher when they come in. The Tibetans always do that with processions when the teacher comes in: they walk in front of the teacher with lit incense and play music and these sorts of things. Also, it includes offering personal service to others, helping others – going out of one’s way. These are the causes for the wheels on a Buddha’s hands and feet.

[2] The second feature is that the soles of a Buddha’s feet are as smooth and level as the breast of a tortoise’s shell so that the Buddha’s feet are always firmly planted. I guess this means that Buddhas have flat feet! This shows that the Buddhas have always been firm – like a Buddha stands firmly. So, the Buddhas have always been firm in their promise to live in accordance with the Dharma, both in the verbal indications of the Dharma and the realizations of the Dharma, as well as having been firm in terms of having safe-guarded, or kept purely, the three types of restraints. 

The Three Restraints (“Vows”)

“Restraint” is how I am translating the word “vow” because, literally, the Tibetan word means “a restraint” – so, restraining oneself from doing something. The three types of restraints are not the three vows that we usually think of, namely, the praktimosha, bodhisattva, and tantric vows. These are three other types of restraints.

First are the restraints for individual liberation. Those are the praktimosha vows, which are the monk type of vows. The three restraints are in connection with the three higher trainings; therefore, the praktimosha vows – restraining from destructive behavior – would be a training of higher ethical discipline. 

Second are the restraints that arise from being in a state of mental stability. These are the dhyana restraints, or dhyana vows, although the word “vow” doesn’t make much sense here. These are the restraints to guard against the mental wandering, flightiness of mind, and mental dullness that can arise as obstacles to achieving absorbed concentration. These restraints come in the training in higher concentration. 

The third are called “restraints from being unassociated with confusion,” or “untainted, or so-called uncontaminated, vows,” although, again, the word “vow” doesn’t make much sense here. The restraint from being “unassociated with confusion,” comes from preventing the disturbing emotions and disturbing attitudes, a state that arises from realizing voidness. These are the restraints that come from the training in higher discriminating awareness, or higher wisdom. 

I find it quite interesting that this last restraint is number one in the Pali list of the 32 features and that the one about serving the teacher is number two in that list. In the two Mahayana lists, the order is reversed. I think this indicates the order of importance that’s given to these two aspects in terms of proper reliance on and respect for the teacher and reliance on these three restraints, these three higher trainings. 

[3] Third feature of the body a Buddha is that the fingers and toes of a Buddha are connected with webs of white light. This feature comes from having practiced the four actions that naturally gather others together under our good influence. Sometimes this is called the “action to gather together disciples,” but it is basically the action to bring others under our good influence. These four actions are: being generous; speaking pleasantly in terms of Dharma and speaking words that are helpful; acting meaningfully – in other words, not just fooling around with others, but acting and behaving in a very meaningful way; and  living accordingly – in other words, acting and living in the way that we teach. These are the ways to become a very strong influence on others because others are obviously going to be favorably disposed to somebody who is generous and kind to them, who speaks in a pleasant way, who spends time with them in a meaningful manner, and who actually lives their lives according to what they teach. So, these are the causes for the third feature, which is indicated by the light that connects the fingers and toes of a Buddha – in a sense, bringing everybody together. 

[4] The fourth feature is that the skin of a Buddha, no matter how old he is, remains unwrinkled and as smooth as that of an infant nursing on mother’s milk. This reflects having always been generous with nourishing food and drink – hence, the image of a baby receiving nourishment from its mother. This particular mark is not given in the Pali list. In the Pali list, they have another one. We won’t get into the order of the 32 because it is quite different in their list. However, I will say that they have another mark that is not mentioned in either of the two Mahayana lists, which is “having soft and tender hands and feet.” I must say that I haven’t had the time to look into this sutta carefully, though they do give the causes for all of these marks in the Pali sutta as well, and I haven’t compared these explanations with the Abhisamayalamkara. 

Also, a bit of my problem is that I don’t have the Pali text, and I never fully trust translations. I always like to look at the original myself. When we go through this list, please don’t just look at these as a lists: they indicate very important Mahayana practices. Also, they are not only Mahayana practices because, obviously, they’re indicated in the Pali Canon as well – so, very fundamental Buddhist practices for any tradition. Remember that the context for this is to help us go in a safe direction – refuge. This is the direction that we want to go in.

[5] The fifth feature is that seven parts of a Buddha’s body are rounded and slightly raised. These seven parts are: the tops of each hand, the tops of each foot, the shoulders, and the back of a Buddha’s neck. The reason for this is their having given others not only physical nourishment, which was the cause of the previous sign, but also having given outstanding objects for enjoyable use. Because of this, “outstanding” are the shoulders, hands and so on. Outstanding objects are things like best-quality clothing. That’s very important if we’re going to be generous with others. We don’t want just to be generous with second-hand clothing or with food that we don’t like, food that is cheap, and this type of thing. We need to give the best quality to others. If we are going to try to give them liberation and enlightenment, then, surely, we can also give them the best food, clothing, or anything else. 

[6] The sixth feature, in the Mahayana versions, is that the roots of the nails of a Buddha’s fingers and toes are extremely long. The root of the nail is the part of the nail that is closest to the finger or toe; it’s not the part that we cut when we cut our nails. On a Buddha, these are very long; they go way back on their fingers and toes. This is why I say that I don’t trust the translations, though I’d have to look at the Pali original; it’s because in the Pali text, it’s translated as saying that a Buddha has long fingers and toes. Maybe that’s a slightly different version because one of the footnotes I saw in the translation said that this is why, in Buddha statues, they always have the fingers be not only long but of the same length. It’s possible, though, that in the Mahayana version, it’s talking about the roots of the nails. This comes from a Buddha having saved the life of animals about to be slaughtered – so, saving life, lengthening life. The roots of the nails are long, or the fingers and toes are long – whichever one. I don’t think it really makes much difference. 

[7] The seventh feature is that a Buddha’s heels jut out broadly from his feet; they stick out behind his feet. This is from a Buddha having compassionately gone out of his way to help others, to save their lives, and to make them comfortable. Buddhas have gone out of their way, so their heels go out as well. 

[8] Then the eighth feature is that the body of a Buddha is very straight and is seven cubits tall. The Pali just says it’s “very straight, like Brahma.” By the way, the Tibetan translation of “Brahma” means “straight,” so there’s a little play on words here. The Mahayana adds that the Buddha is seven cubits tall. A cubit is the distance from the elbow to the fingertip, and ordinary people are four cubits tall. So, a Buddha is super tall. The cause for this extra height is having totally and finally rid themselves of taking any creature’s life. They have gone all the way to the end of stopping killing, of taking anyone’s life. As such, Buddhas are extra tall. They are also straight; they have good posture. 

[9] The ninth feature is that a Buddha’s elbows and kneecaps do not stand out. The English translation of the Pali – and as I say, I’m sorry that I haven’t been able to find the Pali original for this – but the English translation says that they have highly raised ankles. I’m not really sure what in the world that means. Perhaps you can tell me, does the German translation say the same thing as the English? 

[Discussion in German]

Participant: It says that the instep is rounded like a mussel shell.

Dr Berzin: So, the instep is rounded like a shell. This really makes me want to see the Pali original because I don’t see how in the world they translate these two so differently.

Anyway, to continue: a Buddha’s elbows and kneecaps do not stand out. In the Tibetan, it’s is quite clear that this result comes from the intensity of a Buddha’s practice in perfecting the six far-reaching attitudes of giving, ethical self-discipline, patience, joyful perseverance, mental stability, and discriminating awareness. As I pointed out once, we have these far-reaching attitudes in the various Hinayana traditions as well; they’re not only in connection with bodhichitta. One can certainly also have them as a method for reaching liberation.

[10] The tenth feature is that a Buddha’s bodily hair grows upwards. This is from their having engaged in constructive practices and having inspired others to do the same. 

Participant: Body hair grows upward?

Dr Berzin: Body hair, like on the legs and arms, does it grow down along the body or up along the body? I think it means that. I don’t think it means that it stands out.

[Discussion amongst participants]

Dr Berzin: That it stands out…Is that what upwards means? 

[Discussion amongst participants] 

Dr Berzin: OK, then it stands out from the body. That’s what “upwards” means.

Also, on a Buddha’s head, there are snails; it’s not their actual hair. This I’ve never heard an explanation of – why there are snails – although I imagine it’s to protect them from the sun. 

Participant: I’ve heard it’s to cool down. No?

Dr Berzin: Yes, to protect them from the sun – to cool down.

Participant: So, there’s no cause for that?

Dr Berzin: For the snails? No. Maybe the snails are just being very compassionate. I have no idea. I have never heard an explanation for why there are snails.  

[11] The eleventh feature is that a Buddha’s calves are well-rounded like the legs of an antelope. This comes from their admiration for and well-rounded mastery of medicine, astrology, arts and crafts – so, painting and the like – and their having made use of these skills to benefit others. So, if we really want to be able to benefit others, we need to learn these so-called worldly sciences and arts as well as traditional Dharma topics. Then we will be very well-rounded. For this reason, Buddha’s legs are well-rounded.

[12] The twelfth feature is that the arms of a Buddha are extremely long. In the Uttaratantra, it adds that a Buddha’s arms are also smooth, round, and even in length. According to the Mahayana tradition, when Buddhas sit cross-legged with their elbows at their sides, their hands cover their knees so that their fingers can touch the seat – you know, in the earth-touching posture. However, according to the Pali tradition, it says that the arms of a Buddha are so long that when they stand, their hands reach their knees. So, there are two versions of this. These super-long arms reflect that a Buddha has never sent away beggars empty-handed. In this way as well, a Buddha is always giving to others. 

[13] The thirteenth feature is that a Buddha’s private organ is recessed and remains concealed (so, it’s inside him). This comes from the Buddhas having strictly kept their pledges of secrecy and never having revealed what was meant to be held confidential. The private organ is recessed because of this. 

[14] The fourteenth feature is that a Buddha’s skin is luminous. It’s shiny and golden in color from having offered soft and comfortable seats for others to sit on, let’s say, when teaching. 

Participant: When who is teaching?

Dr Berzin: When a Buddha is teaching. They have offered soft and comfortable seats to others, places to sit… cushions.

Participant: My question was, is this referring to when Buddhas were teaching or to when they were being taught?

Dr Berzin: When they were teaching, I think. But I don’t know. Presumably, Buddhas were also taught before they became Buddhas. I have no idea. 

Participant: And what about cushions?

Dr Berzin: It was just an example. He can offer nice seats to everybody: “Come in; sit down. Don’t just sit on a wooden bench or on the floor.”

Participant: Can you explain why Buddha’s sexual organ is receded?

Dr Berzin: It’s like when somebody tells us a secret or something personal about themselves and says, “Don’t tell other people,” or we are given teachings that are supposed to be kept secret or hidden and can only talk about them with those who are receptive and prepared. Buddhas were able to keep these secrets inside; they didn’t reveal them to everybody. Likewise, their sexual organs are kept in, not sticking out and showing to everybody. 

[15] The fifteenth feature is that a Buddha’s skin is as fine and unblemished as purified gold – free from all stains and all taints. This result is from having accommodated others who were in need of lodging – in other words, having given them places to stay when they needed places to stay – and always having provided excellent housing. In the Pali version, it says that their skin is “delicate and smooth.” So, a little bit similar but a little bit different. 

[16] The sixteenth feature is that a Buddha’s body hair curls clockwise. We already had it growing upwards, so I guess that “upwards” does mean “out.” And it curls clockwise with never more than one hair growing from each pore. This is due to Buddhas having completely rid themselves of mental wandering, busy work, and bustling confusion – just running around chaotically. In the Pali tradition, this is divided differently. There, the hair curling clockwise is one feature, and they combine “never more than one hair growing from each pore” with “the body hair that grows upwards” into one sign. 

Participant: What does “without blemishes” mean?

Dr Berzin: Without pimples, without stains.

Participant: Because of what?

Dr Berzin: Because of giving people who needed places to stay really nice places to stay, and good housing. 

Participant: What’s “delicate”? What’s the big difference between “delicate” and “smooth”?

Dr Berzin: I think “delicate” is more in the direction of “soft”  – without hard calluses that one gets from working. But I don’t know. As I say, I didn’t see the Pali original.

And so, just as Buddhas have not behaved chaotically, their bodily hair is not chaotic; instead, it is orderly – one hair coming from each pore and all going in the same direction and so on.

[17] The seventeenth feature is that a Buddha will have a white, treasure-like strand of hair on the middle of their brows – so, between the two eyebrows – that curls very tightly clockwise. When this hair is pulled from its tip, it extends a very long distance, and when released, it tightly recoils. It’s sort of like those tape measurers that you pull out, and then, when you let go, they bounce back. Why it’s like that, I don’t know, but it is one of the more difficult signs to achieve. This hair is the result of having served all of their superiors with respect – parents, teachers, elders, spiritual masters, abbots, and so forth – and having respected them as their crown jewel (you know, taken them to the top of their heads). Obviously, it’s very important and not so easy to always do to really show respect to those who are deserving of respect. It also comes from their having helped others to achieve better states of rebirth. That’s another explanation.

[18] The eighteenth feature is that the upper torso – the upper part of a Buddha’s body – becomes progressively broader, like that of a lion. This comes from their having never humiliated or looked down on others regardless of their status, power, or wealth. It also comes from never having scolded others, privately or publicly, and never having belittled others’ beliefs or religious traditions. This is obviously a good piece of advice – that when we follow Buddha’s path, we don’t put other people down for holding different beliefs. 

When we go through and study all of these causes, regardless of the various signs on a Buddha’s body, they give us a very nice picture of the basic Buddhist path. 

Participant: So, is this referring to others’ religious traditions or to their general beliefs and tastes?

Dr Berzin: This is referring to their spiritual traditions. There is a difference when debating with non-Buddhist schools and so on, and we really put them down, saying things like, “You’re stupid; you’re no good.” We should respect other peoples’ beliefs. If they are receptive, we can try to get them to think more deeply. They don’t give examples from here, in the West – for example, our parents die or somebody that we know dies, and they were Christian and we happen to be Buddhist. In that case, it is inappropriate to do a Buddhist funeral service for them; that’s not what they were into. Instead, we go along with a Christian funeral service and don’t make fun of it, laugh at it or think, “Oh, this is silly”: we show respect. 

[19] The nineteenth feature of a Buddha’s body is that the top of their shoulders is round and well connected to their necks, and the network of veins is not visible. In the Uttaratantra version, this part about the veins not being visible isn’t included. This feature comes from having freely given praise and encouragement to others and having acknowledged any action or person that’s worthy of praise. 

The usual Tibetan custom is not to praise others to their faces, because it can tend to make them quite arrogant, but instead, to praise them when they are not there. However, I think this depends very much on the person. Many people in the West have low self-esteem, and we need to praise them directly to their faces in order to encourage them. But one needs, in any case, to give praise. Remember, Shantideva spoke a great deal about this. 

In the Pali version I have, the English translation, it says that, instead of the shoulders being round, the bust is evenly rounded – the breasts. I have no idea, though, what the Pali original of this really says in order to be able to check it. 

[20] The twentieth feature is that the area between a Buddha’s collarbone and shoulder is rounded, fleshy and full, without any hollow depression. Where we have the collarbone, it’s hollow. A Buddha is without this hollow depression, and that is from the Buddhas having given medicine and nourishing foods to others. 

[21] Twenty-one: A Buddha has a special faculty of taste. No matter what food they are given, it always tastes delicious. This comes from having nursed the sick, the old, and the infirmed, especially having taken care of those whom others find distasteful and repulsive, like Mother Teresa taking care of the lepers.

[22] Twenty-two: The body of a Buddha is stately and well proportioned like a full-grown bodhi tree. This comes from having built public gardens and parks for the enjoyment of others and from encouraging others to do the same. In the Pali scripture, it says that a Buddha’s body is as well-proportioned as a banyan tree, and it explains that their height is the same as their out- stretched arms. This fits in with the fact that the Pali scripture has left out that the Buddha is seven cubits tall, which is not equal in height to his out-stretched arms. 

[23] Twenty-three: The top of a Buddha’s head has a crown protrusion called an ushnisha, which is made of radiant flesh. It is round and circles clockwise, a little bit like a turban. When seen from a distance, it seems to be four finger widths high. However, when we look more closely, its height can never be measured. This is the most difficult feature to achieve. It’s the result of a Buddhas having always visualized their spiritual mentor on the crown of their head as well as having visited temples and monasteries and engaged in spiritual practices there. It’s interesting that this is the most difficult feature to achieve and that the cause for it should likewise be the most difficult, which is to always having kept one’s spiritual teacher on the crown of one’s head. I’ll take a look at the Pali version, at least the English translation, to see what the cause for this feature is in the Pali tradition. 

[24] Twenty-four: A Buddha’s tongue is extremely long and can reach the top of their head, ears, and chest. This comes from always having spoken kindly to others with words of encouragement and having treated them as gently as an animal licking its young. 

Participant: How big is the ushnisha from afar?

Dr Berzin: When we see the ushnisha at a distance, it looks to be four finger widths high. That’s an interesting point – that it’s four fingers high when we look at it from a distance but that we can’t measure it when we get up close. For example, the honor and respect that we have for our teachers seems reasonable when people look at it from far away. It doesn’t look over the top, absolutely fanatical. However, when one gets closer, what is really in somebody’s heart can’t be measured. 

One can do quite a lot of meditation on each of these points. 

[25] Twenty-five: The voice of a Buddha is melodious like that of an ancient sparrow, flowing without any effort like the voice of Brahma. Whoever hears the voice of Brahma is temporarily relieved of their problems, but if we hear the sound of a Buddha’s voice, it can bring about full liberation, not just temporary relief. The cause of this is having communicated the Dharma in the individual language of each being. 

[26] Twenty-six: A Buddha’s cheeks are round and full like those of a lion. The English translation of the Pali says that their jaws are like that of a lion. This comes from having completely rid themselves of idle chatter and senseless speech.

[27] Twenty-seven: The eyeteeth, or fangs, of a Buddha are more brilliantly white than their other teeth. That comes from having given special praise to Buddhas and bodhisattvas and having shown them great respect. Respect seems to appear again and again in these lists. 

[28] Twenty-eight: Their teeth are all of equal length. The tantra version adds to this that their teeth are free of stains. This comes from having rid themselves of the five wrong livelihoods and having always earned a living honestly. The five wrong livelihoods are to obtain money, material goods or offerings through: flattery; pressure – pressuring someone to give us money, etc.; extortion, such as saying to someone that if they don’t give us money we are going to expose their secrets; bribery – giving something little to get something big in return; and pretense – pretending we are very holy and good so that someone will give us a good offering. 

Participant: Why a sparrow?

Dr Berzin: Obviously, it’s not a sparrow. It’s just an example of the type of bird that lived in India at that time. It doesn’t matter what kind of bird it is. There’s a Sanskrit name for this bird. 

[29] Twenty-nine: A Buddha’s teeth are perfectly aligned and straight with no gaps between them. This is from having spoken the straight truth for three countless eons and having been honest, never devious or crooked with others. 

[30] Thirty: A Buddha’s teeth are forty in number, with an equal amount in the upper and lower jaws. The cause of this is having rid themselves of divisive language and always having worked for unity and harmony among everybody. 

[31] The thirty-first feature is that the black and white portions of a Buddha’s eyes are clear and distinct with no red or yellow discoloration – no blood-shot eyes. This comes from having looked at others with compassionate eyes, having worked for their welfare, and having generated equal concern for everybody whether they had great or small suffering. Neither the Pali nor the Uttaratantra versions has this mark. What they have instead is that a Buddha’s eyes are dark blue – Buddhas have dark blue eyes. Also, Buddhas have dark-blue hair. I think that in the Pali tradition, it mentions that the hair of a Buddha is dark blue. No, it’s in the Uttaratantra where it says that the hair is dark blue. 

[32] The thirty-second feature is that a Buddha’s eyelashes are beautiful and long like those of a bull – or a cow, in the Pali version – with each lash distinct. This comes from having regarded others without any attachment, hostility, or naivety, and having striven to give them the full length (thus long eyelashes) of discriminating awareness to see the difference between what is correct and what is incorrect. 

In the Uttaratantra, they put number seven and number nine together as one mark, number fourteen and fifteen together as one mark, and number ten and sixteen together as one mark. Then they add three more that aren’t found in the Abhisamayalamkara tradition:

The first of these three is that a Buddha’s Body is free of blemishes. We had this one already, but here it says that their bodies are also surrounded by auras of light (which they always have in all the paintings). This is because Buddhas always practice the ten constructive actions and never feel that they have done enough. 

The second additional feature is that a Buddha’s neck has three horizontal lines going around it (that we also always see in all the paintings). These lines are like that of a conch shell. This is from having given medicine and comfort to the sick. 

The third additional feature is that the hair on a Buddha’s head is sapphire blue and has no faults. This comes from Buddhas having intense loving concern for everybody and having rid themselves of ever using weapons. 

These are the various lists of the thirty-two physical qualities, the excellent signs, of a Buddha. 

Participant: In the German translation, it has something about long earlobes.

Dr Berzin: Yes, but that’s not in the English translation of the Pali. This is what I am really wondering: why is there such a difference between the German translation and the English translation? The orders are different as well, even though they’re referring to the same sutta. This makes absolutely no sense to me unless there are different editions of this Pali sutta. I thought the Pali suttas were the same in all the different countries, just written in different alphabets. So, I have no idea. But the thing with the long earlobes – that’s not in either the Abhisamayalamkara or the Uttaratantra versions. 

Participant: But the statues of Buddhas have long ears.

Dr Berzin: Well, also, on all the statues, the Buddhas have noses. It doesn’t mention anything in the lists about Buddhas’ noses either. 

Participant: Perhaps it’s one of the minor marks?

Dr Berzin: It’s probably listed in the minor marks. However, I don’t have the list of the 80 minor marks in front of me. 

This finishes the presentation of the 32 excellent signs, these major physical marks of a Buddha. As I said, there are 80 exemplary features that are sub-categories of these, but perhaps it is a bit too much to list all of them. 

Next time, if you would like, I could go through the qualities of a Buddha’s Speech – I have gathered them together. There are 64 qualities of a Buddha’s Speech. It’s very interesting; it also gives explanations of them. I think it actually gives us a great deal of inspiration in terms of what it is that we are aiming to practice. What is quite interesting here is that all of these things of serving others, helping others, providing medicine, having respect for the teachers, etc. – that’s there in all Buddhism. We shouldn’t think that it’s only Mahayana and that the Hinayanas don’t have any of this – that they’re just sitting there watching their breath and thinking of impermanence and no-self. This whole theme of love, compassion, and helping others is present throughout all forms of Buddhism and that is the safe direction that we are trying to go in. 

As Nagarjuna points out, we should try to keep continually mindful of this. If we are visualizing Buddha all the time in terms of a tree of refuge or whatever, the point is not to just think of the iconography and to get that correct but to reflect on what the symbols actually represent. That’s the important thing. It’s the same with visualizing ourselves as a tantric deity. All the different aspects of the body stand for something; they represent something. That’s what is important.