Overview of the Tibetan Traditions and Their Lineages

Old Kadam

The Sarma tradition of new tantra translations is also called the Jowo Kadam. Belonging to it are such famous teachers as Atisha, Gyalwa Dromtonpa and the Three Kadam Brothers, as well as many other extraordinary teachers who followed. 

Atisha is also known as Jowo Je (Jo-bo rje dpal-ldan A-ti-sha), from whom is derived the name of this tradition. Having traveled throughout India and to Sumatra to gather together the many fragmented Buddhist lineages, he came to Tibet in the eleventh century from Vikramashila Monastery in North India to revitalize the teachings and reform its abuses. His Lamp for the Path to Enlightenment (Byang-chub lam-gyi sgron-ma, Skt. Bodhipathapradīpa) become the major lam-rim-style work studied by the Kadam and later the Gelug practitioners. 

Dromtonpa was Atisha’s main Tibetan disciple, and the Three Kadam Brothers, the Geshes Potowa (dGe-bshes Po-to-ba Rin-chen gsal), Chengawa (dGe-bshes sPyan-snga-ba Tshul-khrims ’bar) and Phuchungwa (dGe-bshes Phu-chung-ba gZhon-nu rgyal-mtshan), also studied under him. The lojong or attitude training (mind training) teachings were propagated by those who followed in the line of Geshe Potowa.

There were three lineages of this tradition, known as the Old Kadam. The Kadam Zhungpawa (gZhung-pa-ba) lineage of textual explanations is traced from Geshe Potowa, the Kadam Manngagpa (Man-ngag-pa) of oral teachings from Geshe Chengawa, and the Kadam Lamrimpa (Lam-rim-pa) of the graded path from another disciple of Atisha, Gonpawa (dGon-pa-ba dBang-phyug rGyal-mtshan). The Old Kadam is no longer extant as a distinct tradition. Its lineages and teachings have all been amalgamated into other Tibetan Buddhist traditions.  

The roots of the Sakya, Kagyu and Gelug traditions were all intertwined in this Old Kadam.  

Atisha’s disciple Gonpawa had several prominent disciples of his own. Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyaltsen (Sa-skya Pandita Kun-dga’ rgyal-mtshan), an outstanding figure of the Sakya traditions, studied with a disciple of one of them. Gampopa (sGam-po-pa bSod-nams rin-chen), one of the main figures of the Kagyu traditions, studied under another. Moreover, during his third journey to India, the great translator Marpa (Mar-pa Chos-kyi blo-gros), the guru of Gampopa’s guru Jetsun Milarepa (rJe-btsun Mi-la Ras-pa bZhad-pa rdo-rje), met and studied also with Atisha. 

The Gelug tradition is traced from Je Tsongkhapa (Tsong-kha-pa Blo-bzang-grags-pa), who studied with gurus from all the Tibetan traditions and who recombined the three Old Kadam lineages. From one of his Kagyu lamas, Khenchen Chokyob Zangpo (mKhan-chen Chos-skyob bzang-po), he received the lineage of its textual explanations, and from one of his Nyingma ones, Lhodrag Namkha Gyaltsen (lHo-brag Nam-mkha’ rgyal-mtshan), those of both the graded path and the oral teachings.

Gelug

Manjushri Je Tsongkhapa, firmly grounded in (all three lineages of) the Old Kadam tradition, wrote extensively on vinaya, sutra, Madhyamaka, prajnaparamita, tantra and so forth; and the (Gelug) tradition that developed from him came to pervade the entire (Tibetan Buddhist) world.                   

Je Tsongkhapa was most concerned with revitalizing the monastic educational tradition, which had originally been brought to Tibet from India by Shantarakshita. In the monasteries he and his disciples founded, such as Ganden, Sera, Drepung and Tashilhunpo, a course of training was established to ensure that monks would master the major sutra topics in addition to their tantric study and practice. This was in accordance with Atisha’a main purpose for coming to Tibet. The major subjects studied are prajnaparamita, Madhyamaka, pramana, vinaya and abhidharma. 

Prajnaparamita is the study of the hidden meaning of voidness within the context of the bodhichitta teachings of the enlightening aim. It also deals with the stages and paths to enlightenment. Madhyamaka teaches about voidness directly and the ten perfections, namely generosity, moral discipline, patience, enthusiastic perseverance, meditative concentration, discriminating awareness, skilful means, aspirational prayer, strengthening and deep awareness. In terms of these two types of awareness, discriminating awareness (shes-rab, Skt. prajñā) or simply discrimination is awareness of what is to be accepted and rejected about the ultimate nature of relative reality. In other words, it is the wisdom understanding voidness. Deep awareness (ye-shes, Skt. jñāna) is awareness of the state beyond all duality or, more explicitly, the wisdom understanding the unity or nonduality of ultimate voidness and relative appearance. Pramana deals with logic, the mind and the theory of learning. Vinaya deals with rules of discipline and the law of cause and effect. Abhidharma deals with cosmology and metaphysics.

In keeping with the Buddha’s usage of skilful means, each of these subjects can be explained with varying degrees of sophistication as you progress through the Indian schools of tenets. Concerning prajnaparamita, for instance, there is both a Svatantrika and a Prasangika explanation. Although the former is true, roughly speaking, the latter is more accurate. Thus, traditionally certain topics are studied first from the point of view of the particular Hinayana or Mahayana school of tenets which happened to specialize in it. Once an initial understanding has been reached through intensive debate and meditation, it is refined by advancing to the next level of explanation. Pramana, for example, is approached from the Sautrantika and Chittamatra points of view. Unless their theories are understood first, it is very difficult to appreciate the fine points clarified by the Madhyamaka Prasangikas. 

Je Tsongkhapa wrote many commentaries to the works in the Kangyur and Tengyur upon which these sutra studies are based. He also wrote extensively on the tantras and received many teachings from clear visions of his Buddha-figure (meditational deity), Manjushri, the manifestation of the wisdom of all the Buddhas. His mahamudra teachings concerning meditations on the nature of the mind derive from his reworking of his combining what he had learned about this subject from his Kagyu lamas in accordance with the clarification he received in one such clear vision.  

Among his most famous disciples were Gyaltsab Je (rGyal-tshab rJe Dar-ma rin-chen) and Kedrub Je (mKhas-grub rJe dGe-legs dpal-bzang), who inherited in turn the position of the Holder of the Ganden Throne. The lama or spiritual master occupying this position is the head of the Gelug tradition. Another of his disciples, Gyalwa Gendun Drub (rGyal-ba dGe-’dun-grub), was posthumously recognized as the First Dalai Lama. The title Dalai Lama, meaning Ocean-like Master, was conferred in the sixteenth century by a Tumed Mongol prince, Altan Khan, on Sonam Gyatso (rGyal-ba bSod-nams rgya-mtsho), the third of this line, upon his visit to teach in Mongolia. After this time, the Mongols, who had first been converted to Buddhism in the thirteenth century by Sakya Pandita, largely followed the Gelug tradition.

When Gushi Khan, the prince of another Mongol tribe, the Qoshots, defeated the native king of Tibet in the seventeenth century, he assumed the title of King of Tibet for himself and established the Fifth Dalai Lama, Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (rGyal-dbang lnga-pa chen-po Ngag-dbang blo-bzang rgya-mtsho), as the ruling political and religious head of the country in Lhasa. Under his reign, the Potala Palace was enlarged to its present size. 

When yet another Mongol tribe, the Dzungar Mongols, defeated the Qoshots who had nominal power in Tibet, the Manchu Emperor of China, Kangxi, took advantage of the situation to vanquish the Mongols altogether and reinstate the Seventh Dalai Lama in Lhasa. From this time onwards, the Gelug was the officially patronized Buddhist tradition throughout China, Manchuria, Mongolia and Central Asia. Moreover, the project was begun of translating the Tibetan canon into Manchu using a Mongol script modified especially for transcribing this previously unwritten language. Although the rather complicated history of this period has been greatly simplified, this is basically how Je Tsongkhapa’s lineage came to pervade the entire Tibetan Buddhist world. 

The Gelug monastic educational system spread to other Buddhist traditions in Tibet. One example is from the time of the Fifth Dalai Lama, whose gurus included not only the Fourth Panchen Lama, Losang Chokyi Gyaltsen (Pan-chen Blo-bzang chos-kyi rgyal-mtshan), but also a great Nyingma master, the First Dzogchen Rinpoche, Pema Rigdzin (rDzogs-chen Padma-rig ’dzin). The latter conferred many dzogchen empowerments to the Fifth Dalai Lama, who in turn mastered this meditation system and also revealed treasure teachings on the subject that had previously been concealed.

Afterwards, the Dzogchen Rinpoche requested a learned geshe or master of this educational system to return with him to Kham in Eastern Tibet, to establish there the sutra teachings which had so far received little emphasis. The Fifth Dalai Lama consented, and as a result the Dzogchen and Zhechen Monasteries of the Nyingmapas came to follow a training program similar to that of the Gelugpas. Lama Mipam (nineteenth century) was an affiliate of the Zhechen Monastery and, like Je Tsongkhapa, wrote extensive commentaries and textbooks for sutra and tantra studies. Since the seventeenth century, the line of Dalai Lamas has maintained a mutual guru-disciple relation with the lines of both the Panchen Lamas and the Nyingma Dzogchen Rinpoches.

Sakya

The Sakya tradition was established by the Five Sakya Patriarchs, who upheld the sutra and tantra teachings of many great Indian pandits-mahasiddhas such as Vajrasana, Naropa and Virupa, the King of Yogis. This dynastic lineage of the Khon family also follows the Samyak and Vajrakilaya tantra practices of the Nyingma tradition, and many extraordinary and special teachings of the Sakyapas still flourish today, undeclined.  

Sakya Pandita, the crowning jewel of all wise men of the Southern Continent, defeated in debate the non-Buddhist Indian scholar (Harinanda) – a feat performed at that time by no other Tibetan masters of whom we know. 

The Sakya lineage derives from the Kon (‘Khon) family which, for thirteen generations after the time of Padmasambhava, were followers of the Nyingma tradition. The tantric practices of Samyak (Yangdag Heruka) and Vajrakilaya, the two meditational deities of the mahayoga class of old translations (as well as Hayagriva Yangsang), are part of their heritage from this earlier period. 

In the eleventh century, a member of this family, Kon Konchog Gyalpo (’Khon dKon-mchog rgyal-po), went to India in search of fresh Buddhist material. He received the teachings of Abbot Virupa of Nalanda Monastery from the translator Drogmi Lotsawa (Brog-mi Lo-tsa-wa Shakya-ye-shes). This new-style translator was closely connected with the founding figures of the other Sarma traditions. He was one of the gurus of Marpa, from whom twelve of the Kagyu lineages are traced, and both he and Atisha, the founder of the Kadam school, were fellow disciples of the Indian mahasiddha (highly realized practitioner) Shantipa.

When Khon Khonchog Gyalpo returned to Tibet, he brought back the lamdre or “paths and their results” teachings of Virupa on the graded path within the context of the Hevajra Tantra and founded the Sakya Monastery. The Five Sakya Patriarchs (Sa-skya gong-ma lnga) who actually established the Sakya tradition were his relatives and descendants. The first three, Kunga Nyingpo (Sa-chen Kun-dga’ snying-po), Sonam Tsemo (bSod-nams rtse-mo) and Dragpa Gyaltsen (Grags-pa rgyal-mtshan), are known as the Three White Masters, for they were laymen dressed in white. The latter two, Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyaltsen and Chogyal Phagpa (Chos-rgyal ’Phags-pa), being monks in red robes, are known as the Two Red Masters.

The first of these five, Kunga Nyingpo, was the author of Parting from the Four Clingings (Blo-sbyong zhen-pa bzhi-bral-gyi khrid-yig zab-don gnad-kyi lde’u-mig), a teaching he received in a clear vision of the Buddha-figure Manjushri. This and Virupa’s lamdre have become the major lam-rim texts studied in the Sakya traditions. He also received many of the new-style tantra lineages from the translator Mal Lotsawa (Mal Lo-tsa-ba Blo-gros grags-pa).

Among these was that of Vajrayogini, passed from Marpa’s guru Naropa to the Pamtingpa (Pham-thing-pa) brothers of Nepal. Vajrayogini is a female Buddha-figure of the mother classification of anuttarayoga tantra. Three great Indian masters – Naropa, Maitripa and King Indrabhuti – received clear-vision teachings from her, in which she appeared in slightly different forms. Thus, in addition to old-tantra aspects, there arose within the new tantras three lineages of her practice, in fact transmitted within the Thirteen Golden Teachings of the Sakyas (Sa-skya gser-chos bcu-gsum).

This is a very common occurrence, and it accounts for some of the differences found in the depictions of various Buddha-figures and in their sadhana practices. Often, many of the Tibetan traditions share in common several lineages of practice associated with a particular tantric Buddha-figure. The empowerments for each of them are transmitted together from generation to generation, often in a collection of initiations for a hundred or more Buddha-figures and lineages at a time. This is to ensure the survival of unbroken lineages. But, although each tradition may transmit many of the same practices, not all of them receive equal emphasis. Certain deities and specific forms of their practice are more popular at different times. Thus, many of the Vajrayogini lineages, for example, are found in common in the Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya and Gelug traditions – the Gelug having received their transmission directly from the Sakya masters – but each has evolved its own sadhanas from further revelations and at different periods has emphasized different forms of this Buddha-figure. In keeping with Buddha’s method of diverse and skilful means, gurus from each of the traditions have gained enlightenment through a wide variety of Vajrayogini practices. 

There have been three major, commonly recognized human manifestations of Manjushri in Tibet: the Nyingma master Longchen Rabjampa, the Gelug founder Je Tsongkhapa and Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyaltsen, the first of the Two Red Masters. This latter lived in the thirteenth century and was a master of all the known fields of learning, including medicine, logic and poetry. He translated many works of these subjects from Sanskrit into Tibetan, and many of his own compositions were in turn translated into Sanskrit for the benefit of his Indian followers. His fame was so widespread that an Indian sage of the day, Harinanda, journeyed to Tibet to challenge him in debate. 

Sakya Pandita’s victory was such a remarkable event that it became known even among the powerful Mongols. Godan Khan, the grandson of Ghenghis Khan, invited him to Mongolia together with his nephew, Chogyal Phagpa, the second of the Two Red Masters. As a result of their visit, the Mongols became converted to Buddhism and Sakya Pandita was made Viceroy of Tibet and guru to the Khan in return for Mongol suzerainty. In addition, the two Red Masters created a written script for the Mongol language, and under their supervision the translation of the Buddhist scriptures from Tibetan to Mongolian was begun.

Later, Chogyal Phagpa held a similar position with Kublai Khan that his uncle had established with Godan Khan. Such a relationship between the Sakya heads and Mongol rulers continued after Kublai Khan completed his conquest of China and founded the Yuan Dynasty. By the middle of the fourteenth century, however, with the weakening of the Mongols in China, the Sakya leaders were supplanted as political rulers of Tibet by a group of native Tibetans, and afterwards in China itself the Mongols were overthrown by the native Ming Dynasty. Although the fragmented Mongol tribes continued to maintain a Tibetan Buddhist affiliation, this was greatly enhanced and renewed in the sixteenth century by the visit of the Third Dalai Lama to Altan Khan and the conferral of the title “Dalai Lama.”

There are three traditions that hold the teachings of Sakya Pandita: the Sakya, Ngor and Tsar. 

The Five Sakya Patriarchs founded the Sakya tradition itself, whose traditional head is called the Sakya Trizin. Ngorchen Kunga Zangpo (Ngor-chen Kun-dga’ bzang-po) founded the Ngor tradition, while Tsarchen Losel Gyatso (Tshar-chen Blo-gsal rgya-mtsho) founded the Tsar tradition.

There are three additional traditions rooted in the Sakya one itself: the Bulug, Jonang and Bodong. But there are only minor differences in their explanations of sutra and tantra. 

Jonang was founded by Yumo Mikye Dorjey (Yu-mo Mi-skyes rdo-rje), Bodong by Bodong Chogle Namgyel (Bo-dong Phyogs-las rnam-rgyal). The most outstanding figures of these lineages were Buton Rinchen Drub (Bu-ston rin-chen-grub), the founder of the Bulug, and Taranatha (Ta-ra-na-tha) of the Jonang. The former, who lived in the fourteenth century, is famous for having been one of the first to codify and compile the Kangyur and Tengyur. He was an encyclopedist and tantric master. The lineages of the Guhyasamaja and Kalachakra Tantras, for instance, were received by Je Tsongkhapa from his disciples. Guhyasamaja is a father anuttarayoga tantra; Kalachakra was classified by Buton Rinpoche in the nondual category, while Je Tsongkhapa put it as a mother tantra. It deals not only with the more usual tantric material, but also treats extensively astronomy, astrology, mathematics and the energy systems of the body.  

Taranatha was also a master of the Kalachakra system, as well as an author of an extensive history of Indian Buddhism. Living in the sixteenth century, he was one of the most outspoken proponents of the zhentong (gzhan-stong) or other-voidness teachings, which he expounded in connection with Kalachakra. These teachings derive from the Uttaratantra, which had been revealed by Maitreya to Asanga in connection with Buddha Shakyamuni’s third turning of the wheel of Dharma with the Tathagatagarbha Sutra. Not finding anyone in India at the time to whom he could entrust them, Asanga concealed them as a treasure teaching. They were later revealed by Naropa and Maitripa, the Indian forerunners of the Kagyu lineages, and brought to Tibet in the eleventh century in part by the translator Ngog Loden Sherab (rNgog Lo-tsa-ba Blo-ldan shes-rab).

Although voidness has only “one taste,” and the voidness realized in all the Buddhas’ vehicles is the same, it can be talked about from two different aspects. Rangtong (rang-stong) or self-voidness is the refutation of true independent existence. It is the total absence of a mode of existence that never was. There has never been anything that has existed inherently with true independent existence. Self-voidness posits nothing further.

The other-voidness is a way of talking about the total lack of true existence as the basis for the arising of a clear light mind, deep awareness of the nonduality of voidness and appearance, Buddha-nature, Dharmakaya or Body Encompassing Everything, and the constructive conduct of the Buddhas or force-field aligning the mind to enlightenment. It is “other” in the sense that it is completely different from all relative phenomena.  

The purpose for differentiating two aspects of voidness is to prevent practitioners from falling to either of the two extreme positions. For those who in refuting inherent existence might tend towards the extreme of nihilism, the positive qualities of other-voidness are stressed. But for those who might tend to ascribe true inherent existence to the permanent Buddha-nature and so forth, meditation on self-voidness is recommended. With a balance of these two ways of viewing ultimate reality, gurus can lead disciples on a middle path to enlightenment.

The other-voidness teachings, having seriously weakened in the Jonang lineage, were revitalized by Tsewang Norbu (Tshe-dbang nor-bu), a Nyingma master of the eighteenth century. They became widely popularized by the Rime or nonsectarian movement of the nineteenth century, particularly by Jamgon Kongtrul Rinpoche, and are currently found in many of the Nyingma and Kagyu lineages. 

Kagyu

The Kagyu traditions came from Naropa and Maitripa. Marpa, Jetsun Milarepa and Gampopa were their three most outstanding masters. From them four major and eight minor traditions are traced, many of which derived a great deal from Pagmodrupa, a disciple of Gampopa.

Twelve of the Kagyu traditions, known collectively as the Dagpo Kagyu, trace their lineages through Marpa. This great new-style translator of the eleventh century traveled to India three times to study with such accomplished masters as Naropa, Maitripa and the translator Drogmi Lotsawa – all of whom were closely associated with the beginnings of the various other Sarma traditions.

One of the main lineages Marpa brought back to Tibet was that of mahamudra, the great seal of voidness. These teachings concerning meditation on the true nature of the mind were first received by the Indian mahasiddha Saraha in a clear vision of Vajrapani, the Buddha-figure manifesting the power and skilful means of the Buddhas. Saraha, a guru of Nagarjuna, passed these teachings to Luipa, from whose clear visions one of the lineages of the mother tantra practice of Heruka Chakrasamvara is traced. They eventually reached Naropa’s guru Tilopa and were passed from Naropa to Marpa. 

In Tibet, Marpa transmitted these in turn to the great yogi Jetsun Milarepa, famous for his guru-devotion. Of Jetsun Milarepa’s two outstanding disciples, Rechungpa (Ras-chung-pa rDo-rje grags-pa) and Gampopa, the latter, having studied with a disciple of Gonpawa, one of Atisha’s disciples, combined the mahamudra and Kadam teachings and composed the Jewel Ornament of Liberation (Thar-pa rin-po-che’i rgyan), which is the major lam-rim text studied in the Kagyu traditions. One of his main disciples was Pagmodrupa (Phag-mo gru-pa rDo-rje rgyal-po). Thus, Tilopa, Naropa, Marpa, Jetsun Milarepa, Gampopa and Pagmodrupa form a successive guru-disciple lineage.

The four major and eight minor Kagyu traditions are so-called because the former were founded by direct disciples of Gampopa, while the latter by those of Pagmodrupa. The four major and their founders are: 

• Barom Kagyu – Barompa Darma Wangchug (’Ba-rom-pa Dar-ma dbang-phyug)
• Pagdru Kagyu – Pagmodrupa
• Kamtsang Kagyu or Karma Kagyu – First Karmapa Dusum Khyenpa (Dus-gsum mkhyen-pa)
• Tsalpa Kagyu – Zhang Yudragpa Tsondru Dragpa (Zhang g.yu-brag-pa brTson-’gru brags-pa).

The eight minor are: 

• Drikung Kagyu – Drikungpa Jigten Gonpo (’Bri-gung-pa ’Jig-rten mgon-po)
• Taglung Kagyu – Taglung Tangpa Сhenpo Tashi Pel (sTag-lung Thang-pa bkra-shis-dpal)
• Yelpa Kagyu – Drubthob Yeshe Tsegpa (sGrub-thob Ye-shes brtsegs-pa)
• Marpa Kagyu – Choje Marpa Drubtob (sMar-pa sGrub-thob Shes-rab seng-ge)
• Shugseb Kagyu – Gyergom Chenpo (Gyer-sgom chen-po gZhon-nu grags-pa)
• Drugpa Kagyu or Lingre Kagyu – Lingrepa Pema Dorje (Gling-ras-pa Padma rdo-rje) and Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje (gTsang-pa rgya-ras Ye-shes rdo-rje)
• Yazang Kagyu – Zarawa Yeshe Sengge (Zwa-ra-ba sKal-ldan Ye-shes seng-ge)
• Tropu Kagyu – Gyaltsa Rinpoche (rGyal-tsha Rin-chen mgon-po) and Kunden Repa (Kun-ldan ras-pa).

Even nowadays four are still extant and undegenerated. These are the Karma, Drugpa, Drikung and Taglung traditions. The lineages of the others, however, are in a seriously weakened condition at present.  

Of the twelve Dagpo Kagyu traditions, the Karma, Drugpa, Drikung and Taglung Kagyu are the most widespread today.  

Karma Kagyu was founded by the First Karmapa, Dusum Khyenpa, a direct disciple of Gampopa and founder of the Tsurpu Monastery. One of his main disciples was Drogon Sonam Dragpa (’Gro-mgon bSod-nams brag-pa), also known as Sanggye Rapa (Sangs-rgyas Ra-ba) or Drogon Rapa (’Gro-mgon Ra-ba), the predecessor of the lineage of Situ Rinpoches. The lineages of Karmapas and Dalai Lamas are commonly recognized as the human manifestations of Avalokiteshvara, the emanation of all the Buddhas’ compassion.

The Second Karmapa, Karma Pakshi (Kar-ma Pak-shi), like Chogyal Phagpa, the second of the Two Red Masters of the Sakyas, had a strong affiliation with the Mongol court of Kublai Khan. From his time onwards, particularly towards the latter part of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty in China and the subsequent native Ming Dynasty, the Karmapas were frequent visitors to China and received imperial patronage.

The Third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorje (Rang-byung rdo-rje), was famous for having adapted the dzogchen teachings to those of mahamudra. He himself was a guru of the Nyingma master Longchen Rabjampa, and both were fellow disciples of Rigdzin Kumaraja (Rig-’dzin Ku-ma-ra-dza). Through the joint efforts of these three, the Nyingthig or Innermost Essence teachings of dzogchen became one of the common grounds between the Karma Kagyu and Nyingma traditions. The Third Karmapa himself was a revealer of treasure teachings, specifically of the Karma Nyingthig, a group of dzogchen teachings felt to be especially applicable to the Kagyu lineages.

The Fourth Karmapa Rolpe Dorje (Rol-pa’i rdo-rje) was one of the gurus of Je Tsongkhapa, the founder of the Gelug tradition. 

Just as the line of Panchen and Dalai Lamas have had – since the time of the Fifth Dalai Lama – a reciprocal guru-disciple relationship, a similar association has evolved between the Karmapas and the lines of the Zhamar and Situ Rinpoches. The Zhamar Rinpoches, like the Panchen Lamas, are regarded as emanations of Amitabha Buddha, the guru of Avalokiteshvara, while the Situ Rinpoches are manifestations of Maitreya Buddha. The First Zhamar Rinpoche, Drag Sengge (Zhwa-dmar Grags-seng-ge), was a disciple of the Third Karmapa as well as of his dzogchen guru Rigdzin Kumararaja. The First Situ Rinpoche, Chokyi Gyaltsen (Ta’i si-tu Chos-kyi rgyal-mtshan), was a disciple of the Fifth Karmapa Dezhin Shegpa (De-bzhin gshegs-pa).

The Black Hat ceremony of the Karmapas and the Red Hat ones of the Zhamar and Situ Rinpoches are examples of what is known as “liberation through seeing.” If you have built up a vast and sufficient amount of positive force, the seeing of these specially consecrated hats as worn by their masters while in deep meditational absorption can trigger your liberation. If you lack the prerequisite positive force, this seeing can implant strong karmic instincts on your mental continuum for further contact with these Buddha emanations and for eventual such liberation. 

The Drugpa Kagyu lineage is traced from Lingre Pema Dorje, a twelfth century disciple of Pagmodrupa known for having cured himself of leprosy by the power of his meditation. This Kagyu lineage, however, was actually founded by his foremost disciple, Tsangpa Gyare, who also adapted dzogchen teachings with mahamudra, the forms of which he received from his Nyingma guru Kharlungpa (mKhar-lung-pa). In addition, he is famous as a revealer of treasure teachings on mahamudra concealed by Jetsun Milareapa’s disciple, Rechungpa.

Pema Karpo (’Brug-chen Pad-ma dkar-po), a sixteenth century reincarnation of Tsangpa Gyare, was the First Drugchen Rinpoche and codified all the Drugpa Kagyu teachings. Subsequently, the Drugchen Rinpoche has been the spiritual head of this tradition, as has the Karmapas for the Karma Kagyu. One of its most outstanding figures was the Third Khamtrul Rinpoche Kunga Tenzin (Khams-sprul Kun-dga’ bstan-’dzin) of the eighteenth century – the First Khamtrul Rinpoche having been a disciple of one of the Pema Karpo’s disciples. His works on mahamudra incorporate many of the dzogchen teachings drawn from the writings of Longchen Rabjampa. 

The Drikung Kagyu lineage was founded by Drikung Jigten Gonpo, a disciple of Pagmodrupa. He inherited the Nyingma lineages of his father, who was a master of this tradition, and was widely recognized as a reincarnation of Nagarjuna. 

The Taglung Kagyu is traced from another of Pagmodrupa’s disciples, Taglung Tangpa, who was also a disciple of the Kadam Geshe Chekawa. The Kadam lineage of the lojong or mind-training teachings had passed from Atisha to Dromtonpa and then successively to the Geshes Potowa, Sharawa and Chekawa.

In addition to the twelve Dagpo Kagyu lineages, which are traced through Marpa, there was yet another Kagyu tradition.  

The Tibetan yogi Khedrub Khyungpo Naljor studied in India with two dakinis as well as with Rahulagupta, Maitripa and many others. Altogether he studied with 150 pandit masters, and upon his return to Tibet prorogated what came to be known as the Shangpa Kagyu tradition. Nowadays, this is no longer held separately by anyone. Its lineages of empowerments and oral transmissions, however, are preserved primarily in the Sakya and the other Kagyu traditions. 

Dakinis are a type of female enlightened beings who make conditions favorable for and inspire one to the meditational practices. The two dakinis that Khedrub Khyungpo Naljor (mKhas-grub Khyung-po rnal-’byor) studied with were Niguma and Sukhasiddhi. The former was a relative of Marpa’s guru Naropa, and the latter was a disciple of the Sakya forerunner Virupa. From them are traced the six yogas of Niguma and the six yogas of Sukhasiddhi. 

Some of the Shangpa Kagyu lineages passed not only into the Sakya and other Kagyu traditions, but also into the Gelug, from Jagchen Jampa Pel (’Jag-chen Byams-pa-dpal) to Je Tsongkhapa. Je Tsongkhapa’s disciple Khedrub Je received from the Shangpa master Namkay Naljor (Nam-mkha’i rnal-’byor) empowerment and teachings of the Six-Armed Mahakala, a forceful protector of the anuttarayoga tantra. In addition to the four major Tibetan traditions, the Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya and Gelug, there are several others.

There are many additional traditions of tantric practice in Tibet. For example, the chod rite of cutting off demonic interferences comes from the Zhije or Pacifier tradition. This was founded by the Tibetan yogini Machig Labdron, following the teachings of the Indian mahasiddha Padampa Sanggye. But in fact, all these traditions differ only in name. In essence they all converge on one point: each and every one of them teaches methods for attaining the same ultimate goal, the full enlightenment of Buddhahood. 

As can be seen from the brief histories given above, none of the Buddhist traditions of Tibet have developed in complete isolation from the others. Many of their roots are common or intertwined, and over time they have had continual contact, stimulating each other’s growth. Great masters within each have often studied under gurus from the others, and many lineages and practices are held in common with only slight variations in content and style. Nevertheless, they do have their own specialties and distinctive approaches to meditation.

Although it is popularly thought that Sakya and Ganden specialize in explanations and the Nyingma and Kagyu in practice, but in fact, what the pandits and scholars of old have said is: “The Nyingmapas were the pioneers of the Dharma in the Snow Land (Tibet). The Kadampas were the source of a hundred thousand upholders of the teachings. The Sakyapas expanded and spread the complete Dharma. The Kagyupas offered a secret path for the incomparable master meditators. Among the expounders of excellent doctrines, Je Tsongkhapa was like the sun. Jonangpa Taranatha and Buton were the two great masters of the vast and profound tantra teachings,” and this explanation accords with what is so. 

In general, although gurus in each tradition spread the Dharma through giving public discourses and prepare disciples for meditational retreats, those of the Sakya and Ganden, that is Gelug, specialize in the former, while those of the Nyingma and Kagyu in the latter. All, however, agree that in order to meditate effectively, you must first hear and study correct instructions and explanations of the teachings and then think about them until you understand what they mean. Otherwise, your meditation will be filled with doubts and questions as to what you are doing. This is universally attested to by the great scholars and master meditators found in each tradition. 

Moreover, although the styles and form of ngondro or preliminary practices may differ from one lineage to another, and within a given tradition as well, everyone stresses their importance for eliminating obstacles and creating a conducive state of mind for intensive meditation. Styles of chanting and ritual procedures also differ greatly from tradition to tradition. In fact, there is a great variety of styles found within each lineage and even within a specific monastery. In general, however, Nyingmapas have more ritual diversity than is found in any of the Sarma traditions. But these are superficial differences.  

It can also be noted that specific Buddhist technical terms have a wide variety of definitions and usages. Although general patterns can be traced, distinguishing lines cannot be drawn strictly on the basis of the Tibetan traditions. This was a feature first of all found in India, particularly among the various schools of tenets. The connotation of a term in the Chittamatra system, for instance, is not at all the same as when found in a Prasangika-Madhyamaka context. On top of this, in Tibet, many scholars from all traditions defined terms slightly differently for each of these contexts based on their own meditational experience. They expounded these in their copious writings, and even a single author may have explained things differently in separate works and at diverse periods in his life. From this massive literature, nearly every division of each monastery has chosen its own textbooks and favorite commentaries. Thus, it is clear that the approach in Buddhism is not at all dogmatic. By having a wide range of commentaries and definitions available, the practitioner can discover for himself in his meditations and debates with others just which are relevant and helpful at each stage of his spiritual path.

A more noteworthy distinction among the Tibetan traditions is found in their general approaches to voidness meditation, although again each guru will guide each disciple differently in accordance with the student’s disposition and needs. But broadly speaking, emphasis is placed among the Gelugpas on developing non-conceptual straightforward cognition of voidness through understanding first the logical refutation of self-established existence. Nyingma and Kagyu practitioners approach gaining this bare cognition through meditation on the other-voidness to realize the Buddha-nature and deep awareness of the nonduality of voidness and appearance. The Sakyapas in general place equal stress on both these aspects of the full realization of ultimate reality. Their special meditation technique is on the inseparability of samsara and nirvana for achieving the Buddha’s body and mind more directly by practicing simultaneously causes similar to both of them.

The most advanced methods indicate how there is also a difference between old and new traditions with regard to the approach for revealing the subtlest level of consciousness for the blissful realization of voidness. This subtlest level, often referred to as the Buddha-nature, is the underlying stratum of and pervasive with all consciousness. With the new tantras, emphasis is primarily on becoming aware of it by withdrawing from grosser levels of consciousness as with the dissolution process of the bodily elements experienced actually in death, but by simulation during meditation. In the old tantras, the emphasis is on recognizing and becoming aware of this subtlest level directly within the context of the roughest levels of consciousness without necessarily first ceasing the latter. To be able to do so, however, requires the close guidance of a fully qualified meditation master and frequently also some familiarity with this subtlest level through previous experience of the dissolution techniques emphasized in the new tantras. Even though, in order to recognize the subtlest level of consciousness, the grosser levels are not ceased in this old tantra technique, nevertheless the experience of the masters is that the grosser levels gradually cease of their own by the force of realization of the subtlest level or Buddha-nature. Thus, although the approach differs, the goal of enlightenment achieved by both techniques is the same. 

The terma or spiritual treasure teaching tradition of the Nyingmas derives from the great teacher Guru Rinpoche, Padmasambhava of Ugyan. After coming to Tibet and instructing King Tri Songdetsen and his entourage in many common as well as uncommon teachings, he concealed them to protect and preserve the Dharma against future degenerate times. Actually, there were two types of treasure teachings: those concealed in the earth and those concealed in the mind.  

Those concealed in the earth (sa’i gter) were transmitted largely by Padmasambhava, encoded into the language of the dakinis by his consort, Yeshe Tsogyal (Ye-shes mtsho-rgyal), and concealed in certain hallowed places in Tibet. Other earth-treasures were likewise concealed by the pandit Vimalamitra, the translator Vairochana and many others. The mind-treasures (dgongs-pa’i gter) were teachings implanted in the minds of great teachers during previous incarnations when they were disciples of Padmasambhava or of other great masters.

Later, at appropriate times, supreme beings who were incarnations (of Guru Rinpoche himself) revealed these treasure teachings, and they have provided much benefit and happiness for many limited beings and for the Buddhas’ Dharma. Lineages deriving from clear visions and whispered teachings are found in many forms in both the old and new translation traditions. 

These are not disputed. Whispered teachings (gnyan-rgyud) are instructions strictly for specific tantric practices. They are not supposed to be written down, and there is often a restriction on the number of disciples who can receive them at one time. They are not the same as quintessence teachings (man-ngag, Skt. upadeśa), which are gurus’ explanations, from their own experience, of the methods for realizing certain points from either the sutras or the tantras. These latter are oral in the sense that they originally derive from an oral explanation, but many have also been written down. The Filigree of Realizations (mNgon-rtogs-rgyan, Skt. Abhisamayālaṃkāra) by Maitreya, for instance, is an oral teaching in textual form of how to organize and realize the prajnaparamita topics. Oral teachings may be less formal, however, and may simply be a guru’s personal advice concerning your meditational practices. All Tibetan traditions have oral and whispered teachings, as well as those deriving from clear visions of Buddha-figures and previous masters. 

The few scholars, however, who have questioned the validity of lineages deriving from treasure teachings, would do well to consider the purpose and reasons (for their criticism), since these concealed teachings are established as valid by the three standard criteria.

All knowable phenomena can be divided into those that are obvious, obscure and extremely obscure. Obvious things, such as a vase, can be known by valid bare cognition; you can see it. Something obscure, like its impermanence, however, can only be known by ordinary beings through the type of inferential cognition that relies on the actual powers of logic. From a line of reasoning such as “the vase is impermanent because it is a product of causes,” you can come to know its impermanence validly. That which is extremely obscure, for instance the fact that wealth in this lifetime is the result of previously practiced generosity, can only be known directly by enlightened beings. Otherwise, you can only infer the truth of such statements from your conviction in the validity of its source.

An enlightened being is someone who has transformed himself into such a valid source. The force of his development of great compassion has removed the obstacles preventing his bare cognition of voidness. Such a powerful perception of reality has allowed him to overcome all obscurations and gain the perfect realization of omniscience. This, in turn, has enabled him to help others to the maximum, since it has qualified him as a teacher of non-deceptive paths to a similar goal. Reasoning in this way, you can validly infer that what an enlightened being teaches is true, since being omniscient and intent only on benefiting others, he has no reason ever to deceive you. Thus, even though you cannot understand extremely obscure things, like rebirth and beginningless mind, you can rely on his information as being correct.

A teaching is established as valid, then, if it fulfills three standard criteria. What it says about obvious phenomena must not be contradicted by valid bare cognition. Its statements about that which is obscure must not be contradicted by valid inferential cognition based on logic, nor its information about extremely obscure things by valid inference based on conviction. As the treasure teachings fulfil these criteria, they are certainly valid and you can be confident that by relying on them you can achieve the goal of enlightenment.  

It is important to understand the reason for such teachings, as well as for those deriving from clear visions. Because of varying conditions, such as religious persecution, wars or rampant skepticism, certain times are less conducive than others for the practice of Dharma. This is particularly the case for its more profound tantric aspects, which are often open to misinterpretation and abuse. At times like these, the great masters have felt that it is better to conceal such teachings than openly spread them. They have done this out of great compassion to prevent those who might mock or distort them from causing themselves disastrous results. Concealed treasure teachings are later revealed when the times are more conducive for their successful and beneficial practice. 

Furthermore, even if a certain practice has not been concealed, its potency as an effective method for removing delusions and accumulating positive force may be seriously hampered if it had become too commonplace or openly practiced. This is because people normally have a low regard and little respect for that which is easily available and popularly known, but value highly that which is rare and difficult to obtain. If you cherish like a precious gem the teachings you receive and deeply appreciate the rarity of your opportunity to practice them, you will naturally apply yourself harder and have a much better chance of success. Therefore, at times when tantric sadhanas and practices have become too open, trite or stale, new ones are revealed either in clear visions or from concealed treasure teachings.  

A similar reason for their revelation is if the lineage of a practice has become so remote that it no longer seems relevant or powerful to disciples. Just as relay stations are necessary for transmitting electricity and radio waves over long distances, likewise clear vision and revealed treasure teachings help ensure the potency of effectiveness of the Buddhas’ propagation of the Dharma. Their revelation is motivated only by compassion and is for the purpose of making available more effective methods for attaining enlightenment. His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama has said it is not unreasonable to expect further ones in the future.

Therefore, whoever shows disrespect for these teachings commits the serious mistake of disparaging the Dharma. As the consequences of such a destructive action are extremely grave, special care is needed.  

Treasure teachings are not exclusive to the Nyingma tradition. As cited above, many outstanding masters from other lineages have revealed them as well, such as Tsangpa Gyare, the Third Karmapa and the Fifth Dalai Lama. There are many examples even from India, such as the other-voidness teachings of Asanga revealed by Naropa and Maitripa.

Nagarjuna revealed the Prajnaparamita Sutra in One Hundred Thousand Verses.

Nagarjuna retrieved them from the bottom of the ocean, where they had been concealed by Manjushri and entrusted to the care of the nagas, snake-like protectors of the Dharma.

Similarly, great Indian mahasiddhas have retrieved tantric treasure teachings from the stupa of Ugyan Dhumatala. Thus, it is clear that this custom existed in India as well. Although there are many other examples I could cite, I shall leave this subject for now.