The Repression of Nyingma and Bon and Their Revival

Langdarma’s persecution put an end to the ceremonial and educational aspects of Buddhism, as these were dependent on the functioning of the large monasteries. There were no longer any monks, but this did not mean the end of all Buddhist practice in Tibet. The tantras that had been banned by the Religious Council soon were flourishing. Their practice could be carried out by laypersons in their homes.

The level of study of these tantras, however, was extremely weak. The major text was from the mahayoga class, the Guhyagarbha Tantra. It had been translated during the eighth century. People misunderstood it and took many of the terms literally. The discussion of “union” was taken to mean that men could take female partners at will and indulge in ordinary sex as a spiritual path. The term “deliverance of the consciousness of others” was taken as giving free license to kill and to offer animal sacrifices. Without a Religious Council, there was no authority to check and correct these mistaken notions. Many questionable ritual practices arose in the guise of tantra.

Dzogchen practice also seems to have continued during this period, developing some of its terminology from the Guhyagarbha Tantra. Its survival is attested to by the fact that Nubchen Sangye Yeshe (832–942 CE) outlined the four progressive stages of practice of the gradual, instant, mahayoga and dzogchen approaches. Chan also continued at Dunhuang.

Many dzogchen and other tantric texts had already been hidden by Padmasambhava and others during the later part of the eighth century. At the time of Langdarma’s repression, it would appear that more texts were concealed throughout the country, in caves or in monastery walls for safekeeping. By the late eleventh century, they began to be discovered. With their discovery, many of the earlier misunderstandings were slowly cleared away.

The structure of the Nyingma systems is complex, with many divisions. In order to trace the Nyingma revival that started in the eleventh century CE, it will be helpful to outline the special organizational features of the Nyingma materials.

Nyingma structures the Buddhist teachings into nine vehicles. Such a system was not found in India. The first three vehicles are those of sutra: the Hinayana vehicles of the shravakas (listeners) and pratyekabuddhas (self-realized ones) and the Mahayana vehicle of the bodhisattvas. The next three vehicles constitute the lower classes of tantra: kriya, charya and yoga tantra. The three highest vehicles are mahayoga, anuyoga and atiyoga. These three cover the highest level of tantra equivalent to anuttarayoga. In the new translation tantra systems, anuttarayoga is the fourth and highest class of tantra.

• Mahayoga emphasizes the generation stage practices of using the imagination to visualize oneself in the form of a Buddha figure.
• Anuyoga also has these same procedures but stresses the complete stage practices with the energy-channels, energy-winds and energy-drops of the body’s subtle energy system.
• Atiyoga has both mahayoga and anuyoga practices as its foundation and presents the dzogchen technique.

The mahayoga tantras were brought to Tibet by Padmasambhava and Vimalamitra. Anuyoga was transmitted through Nubchen Sangye Yeshe. Atiyoga came from Padmasambhava, Vairochana and Vimalamitra.

There are three sources of mahayoga, anuyoga and atiyoga teachings.

• The textual tradition, kama in Tibetan, derives from the enlightening words of the various aspects of the Buddha.
• Treasure texts, or terma, were concealed by such masters as Padmasambhava to safeguard them for future, more conducive times. Such treasures could be hidden either in a physical location or in the mind-stream of an appropriate disciple. A master who discovers such texts is known as a treasure revealer, or terton. Sometimes the actual physical texts that are found have been written only in ciphers. These trigger a verbal rendering from the mind of its revealer, who then writes it down. The custom of treasure texts was found in India, such as with the Prajanparamita Sutras.
• The third source of the highest Nyingma tantras is pure visions, dagnang. This tradition was also found in India, such as with the texts of Maitreya received by Asanga.

Atiyoga or dzogchen has three divisions. They derive from different lineages but are philosophically much the same.

• The “mind division” (semde) emphasizes the mind or pure awareness as the basis of all phenomena.
• The “open sphere division” (longde) stresses the open sphere aspect of the mind itself as this basis. These first two divisions are no longer widely practiced.
• The main aspect is the “oral guideline division” (menngagde), referring to the “heart essence” systems (nyingtig). It emphasizes pure awareness’ being pure from the top.

The mind and open sphere divisions are traced from Vairochana. The oral guideline division comes from Padmasambhava and Vimalamitra. Padmasambhava gave the Khandro Nyingtig (Dakini Heart Essence) teachings to his female partner Yeshe Tsogyal and Princess Pema Sal. Vimalamitra transmitted the Vima Nyingtig (Vimalamitra Heart Essence) system. Both were hidden as treasure texts, the former by Padmasambhava at Samye Monastery, and the latter by a disciple of Vimalamitra at the Zha temple in the Uru valley in the Drigung region, northeast of Lhasa.

The first Nyingma treasure revealer was Sangye Lama in the mid-eleventh century. He was a contemporary of Atisha (982–1054), the Indian master who arrived in Tibet in 1042 CE. Atisha himself discovered a text concealed by Padmasambhava at Samye. At the end of the eleventh century, the Vima Nyingtig texts were recovered by Dangma Lhungyel. Many more texts were unearthed during the next two centuries, including the Khandro Nyingtig. Longchenpa (1308–1363) reorganized and combined these two Heart Essence lineages with his Zabmo Yangtig (Profound Further Heart Essence) texts. He codified all the Nyingma teachings of his time, revealing several more treasure texts. By his time, the Nyingma philosophical orientation within Madhyamaka was more clearly Prasangika, rather than the Yogachara-Svatantrika of Shantarakshita and Kamalashila.

Jigme Lingpa (1730–1798) revised the Zabmo Yangtig as the Longchen Nyingtig (Longchenpa Heart Essence), which has become the major Nyingma Heart Essence system. It is more ritualistic and involves more mahayoga-type visualization practices than the previous Heart Essence systems.

The mind and open sphere division teachings were not transmitted via treasure texts. The mind division was based on translations made by Vairochana. The open sphere division derived from oral teachings passed on by Vairochana. Both divisions declined in importance in the late eleventh century with the unearthing of the Heart Essence teachings of the oral guideline division. Longchenpa wrote a commentary on the mind and open sphere systems, but these teachings were not widely practiced. By the seventeenth century, only the lineage of their oral transmission, lung, was extant.

An oral transmission is the reading of a text out loud by a master holding its lineage. Receiving this transmission enables a disciple to gain more rapid insights into the text. Oral transmissions derived from India and were passed down in all traditions of Tibetan Buddhism.

Two major textual lineages developed within Nyingma are the Southern and Northern Treasure lineages. The Southern Treasure text lineage derives from texts discovered mostly in Bhutan. Although several treasure texts were unearthed in Bhutan during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the most famous treasure revealers of this lineage were Longchenpa, who was briefly exiled in Bhutan, Dorje Lingpa (1346–1405) and the Bhutanese reincarnation of Longchenpa, Pema Lingpa (1450–1521). The Northern Treasure text lineage is based on texts discovered in Tibet. Its earliest treasure revealer was Rigdzin Godem (1337–1409).

The traditional head of the Southern Treasure lineage is the Mindrolling Throne Holder. This position has been held by the line of direct descendants of either Terdag Lingpa or of his reincarnation. Terdag Lingpa (1646–1714), the founder of Mindrolling Monastery, was both a teacher and a disciple of the Fifth Dalai Lama. The Rigdzin Chenpos are the traditional heads of the Northern Treasure lineage. They are the line of reincarnations of Rigdzin Godem and have their seat at Dorje Drag Monastery.

The Nyingma tradition became institutionalized as a sect only in the seventeenth century, much later than the other Tibetan Buddhist schools that followed. Although one of the six major Nyingma monasteries, Katog, was founded in Kham in 1159 CE, it was not the seat of a Nyingma “sect.” The predecessor of Dorje Drag Monastery was founded at the beginning of the sixteenth century but was relocated at its present site in 1632. Mindrolling was established in 1676.

Like Nyingma, Bon organizes its teachings into nine vehicles. Although the three Bon lineages that developed each have their own version of the nine vehicles of Bon, each has the equivalent of dzogchen as the pinnacle. Bon teachings, including dzogchen, have three sources:

• The textual tradition (kama)
• Treasure texts (terma)
• The oral tradition (nyengyu).

The textual tradition is from the uninterrupted transmission of the words of the Bon founder, Shenrab Miwo. The treasure text tradition is similar to what is found in Nyingma. The oral tradition refers to texts dictated by supernatural beings in the Bon equivalent of the Nyingma pure visions.

As with Nyingma dzogchen, the highest of the nine Bon vehicles has three divisions also differentiated mostly by lineage:

• The “great completeness,” or dzogchen
• The Zhang-zhung oral lineage (zhang-zhung nyengyu)
• The “system leading to the ultimate A” (atri).

The great completeness teachings derive from treasure texts hidden in the eighth century and discovered by Zhoton Ngodrub Dragpa in 1088. The Zhang-zhung oral lineage does not derive from oral tradition teachings received in a pure vision, but rather from the textual tradition traced from Shenrab Miwo. The system leading to the ultimate “A,” the major Bonpo dzogchen practice, derives from texts composed by Tibetan masters, mostly in the eleventh century.

A great many Bon texts were concealed by Drenpa Namka between 780 and 790 CE. According to tradition, the earliest Bon treasure texts were discovered accidentally in 913 by Nepali merchants stopping at Samye Monastery. Several more were unearthed in this manner during the tenth century. These earliest discoveries may be apocryphal. The main Bon treasure revealer, however, was Shenchen Luga (996–1035 CE). His discoveries were preceded by much meditational preparation and special visions in which the sites of the texts were shown. By 1017, he had discovered and codified the major non-dzogchen scriptures that constitute the Bon tradition.

During the ensuing years, both dzogchen and non-dzogchen Bon treasure texts were discovered in many regions in Tibet and Bhutan. By the fourteenth century, the three Bon lineages had emerged: the Southern, Central and Northern Treasure lineages. They derive from the geographic location of the discovery of their treasure texts. The Southern lineage developed from texts found mostly in Bhutan. The traditional head of the Bon tradition is the abbot of Menri Monastery. Rather than being inherited within a family line or passed down through a line of reincarnations, this position is filled by election.

The first Nyingma treasure revealer, Sangye Lama, made his initial discoveries several decades after his Bon counterpart, Shenchen Luga. One might be tempted to conclude from this that the custom of establishing lineages from treasure texts was found in the Bon tradition earlier than in the Nyingma. This is difficult to prove conclusively since, from the Tibetan point of view, the treasure text custom was established with the hiding of the texts and not with their discovery. Padmasambhava and Drenpa Namka buried texts at approximately the same time, during the decade prior to the Samye debate. Many Bon and Nyingma treasure texts were later unearthed at the same sites, such as Samye and various locations in Bhutan. Several treasure revealers found texts from both traditions, such as Dorje Lingpa. One can only conclude that there was a parallel development of treasure texts in both traditions.

There was much early contact between the Buddhists and Bonpos. Texts from a variety of traditions were translated at Samye Monastery. In addition to Sanskrit, Gilgit and Chinese Buddhist works, Bon texts were rendered from Zhang-zhung into Tibetan at the Avalokiteshvara Temple of Samye. There was a great interchange of ideas.

Dzogchen is found in both the Bon and Buddhist Nyingma traditions. The Buddhist masters hid their dzogchen works as treasure texts since the times were not conducive for their propagation. Bon masters also concealed their dzogchen texts at the same time, but in order to preserve them from Buddhist persecution. The main Bon proponent, Drenpa Namka, even pretended to accept Buddhism in order that his tradition not perish. Both Bon and Nyingma dzogchen treasure texts were discovered starting in the tenth century. Often, they were unearthed at the same places and by the same persons. Both the Bonpos and Buddhists claim that they are the source of the dzogchen tradition and that the other copied it from them.

This issue is very difficult to settle. Both Bon and Nyingma derived many of their teachings from the Gilgit area. Padmasambhava came from Oddiyana, in modern-day Swat, Pakistan. Islamic pressure from the Arabs and various Turkic groups compelled many spiritual practitioners in this Karakorum-Pamir region to flee to Tibet as a safe haven. The dzogchen type of approach could have entered Tibet from the southwest separately in the Bon and Buddhist traditions or, once in Tibet in one tradition, passed on to the other. Buddhism could have adopted it as a skillful means to communicate with the local spiritual sentiment, or Bon could have adopted it in order to survive Buddhist pressure. Or one can simply say that dzogchen ideas were current at the time and both Bon and Buddhism adopted them into their teaching corpus.

Dzogchen in Nyingma and Bon are extremely similar, although the technical terms are different. Both traditions later organize their materials into nine vehicles. The structure of nine vehicles was not found in India. One of the major contributions the Tibetans made, particularly to Buddhism, was organizing texts and materials into detailed outlines.

The Nyingma and three versions of the Bon nine vehicles, however, are not equivalent. In the Nyingma, three of the vehicles are sutra and six are tantra, whereas in the Bon Central Treasure lineage, four are sutra and five are tantra. In the Bon Southern Treasure lineage, four vehicles deal with the ritualistic material of early Bon, three with sutra and two with tantra. In both Nyingma and Bon, dzogchen is the highest vehicle, and it has three divisions according to lineage. But again, the manner of division and emphasis within each division is different in Nyingma and Bon.

Both Nyingma and Bon teach that both the pure and impure worlds of appearance are the play of the luminous aspect of pure awareness. They both present five-colored rays of light as emanating either the liberated or the uncontrollably recurring world, depending on whether or not pure awareness is under the influence of ignorance. Bon, however, seems to develop this theme further, combining it with its teachings on the origin of the universe.

Bon personifies the luminous mind as Rang Sherig-gi Gyalpo, the King of Self-Knowledge. In Nyingma, pure awareness is identified with Samantabhadra, the All-Excellent One. In both traditions, these personifications reside at the heart, like a candle in a vase. Again, it is difficult to decide whether this graphic concept of a creator mind originated in Bon or Nyingma. It certainly is more in accordance with early Bon creator myths than with Indian Buddhist themes. In neither system, however, does the universe exist only solipsistically in the mind. Not even Indian Chittamatra asserts that.

When either the King of Self-Knowledge or the All-Excellent One recognizes his own nature, the luminous aspect of pure awareness generates the pure appearances of nirvana, the world released from all bondage. When he does not see his own nature, this luminous aspect gives rise to the deceptive appearances of the world of samsara, uncontrollably recurring existence. In the Bon presentation, however, the mechanism is detailed with each of the five rays of colored light generating sixteen aspects for either samsara or nirvana. In Bon religious paintings, these lights are often depicted as going upwards and downwards, generating two universes. It is reminiscent of the early Bon dualistic division of the world into zones of light and dark.

Pure awareness, as the foundation for all appearances of samsara and nirvana, is further differentiated in Bon. Bon dzogchen speaks of an abiding universal mind and a mind of an individual’s continuum. The former in everyone is responsible for shared appearances, whereas the latter accounts for personal aspects. This presentation does not seem to be found in Nyingma dzogchen.

Another difference is the position of the dzogchen texts in Buddhism and Bon. In Buddhism, dzogchen works are not included in the official canon. They are collected and transmitted separately. In Bon, on the other hand, the dzogchen texts are formally included in its canon.

There are many ritual aspects that are shared in common between Nyingma and Bon. We have already discussed the use of scapegoats and ransoms in ceremonies to eliminate obstacles. Such features, as well as the use of tormas, molded cones of toasted barley flour decorated with butter sculpture, are found in all the traditions of Tibetan Buddhism. Another common practice of Nyingma and Bon is certain types of bardo rituals for those deceased persons who are in the state in-between rebirths.

As an influence of the Chan idea of instant or sudden enlightenment, Nyingma speaks of practices for “those for whom everything happens at once.” In this vein, there are ceremonies for liberation through seeing, being touched and hearing. For those who have built up an enormous amount of positive force and deep awareness in either this or previous lives, merely seeing or being touched by a specially consecrated statue can be the circumstance that, all of a sudden, brings about liberation. Liberation here means enlightenment, not the liberation of a Hinayana practitioner. A certain set of statues of Padmasambhava consecrated at the time this great master was in Tibet are used for this purpose. Seeing the Black Hat Ceremony of the Karmapas of the Karma Kagyu tradition can also act in the same way.

Liberation through hearing most often takes place when someone is in the bardo state between rebirths. If someone has done a great deal of tantric practice during one’s immediately preceding or even more remote prior lifetimes, then hearing a text read while one is in the bardo may cause one to recognize the appearances in a tantric manner as various Buddha-figures. Such recognition, with further insight, may lead to everything happening all at once so that one achieves liberation. If, on the other hand, one has not built up any familiarity with such tantric systems, hearing such texts may nevertheless start a connection with these practices so that one might be drawn to them in one’s future life.

There are numerous tantric systems used in such practices. A Western scholar, Evans-Wentz, translated one such text from the Nyingma tradition. Inspired by The Egyptian Book of the Dead, he named it The Tibetan Book of the Dead, as if it were the only such text. It is not, and the title he chose in English has nothing to do with the actual Tibetan title, Liberation through Hearing in the Bardo. Such texts and practices are also found in the Bon tradition. Similar guidebooks read for people in the bardo are found in other lineages of Tibetan Buddhism as well, although they are not as prominent as in Nyingma and Bon.

There are several other features shared in common, but with slight differences, between Nyingma and Bon. These include the monastic and debate traditions. Bon, however, shares these features in common with all the Tibetan Buddhist traditions. In order to examine this phenomenon, we must next outline the development of the Sarma, or New Translation, Tibetan Buddhist schools.