Revealing Forms of the Body in Vaibhashika

Karmic impulses in actions of body and speech are forms of physical phenomena and have two aspects: revealing forms (rnam-par rig-byed-kyi gzugs, Skt. vijñaptirūpa) and nonrevealing forms (rnam-par rig-byed ma-yin-pa’i gzugs, Skt. avijñaptirūpa). 

When preceded by an inciting karmic impulse (sems-pa’i las, Skt. cetanākarma), revealing forms are incited karmic impulses (bsam-pa’i las, Skt. cetayitvākarma). An example is the revealing form of the body in the destructive action of killing a mosquito when preceded by the destructive action of mind of thinking over, with malice, killing one that is buzzing around us and deciding to do it. A revealing form of the body may also not be preceded by an inciting karmic impulse, in which case it is not considered incited. An example is spontaneously smacking and killing a mosquito that has landed on our arm.  

In The Clarified Meaning, An Explanatory Commentary on (Vasubandhu’s) “Treasure House of Special Topics of Knowledge” (Chos mngon-pa’i mdzod kyi ’grel-bshad don-gsal-ba, Skt. Sphuṭārtha Abhidharmakośavyākhyā) (Gretil ed. 29, Derge Tengyur vol. 143, 25B), Jinaputra Yashomitra states in brief what a revealing form reveals to others: 

A revealing (form) is, in fact, something that makes known to others that the mind that causes it to arise (motivates it) is “constructive, destructive or unspecified; gentle, cruel or neither.”

(Skt.) vijñaptir hi svasamutthāpakaṃ cittaṃ kuśalākuśalāvyākṛtaṃ saumyaṃ krūram anubhayam iti vā paraṃ vijñāpayati.

(Tib.) /rnam par rig byed ni rang kun nas slong bar byed pa dge ba dang mi dge ba ’am/ lung du ma bstan pa ’am nges pa ’am khro ba ’am gnyi ga ma yin pa zhes bya ba gzhan la rnam par rig par byed de/

Although the Tibetan translation omits the word “mind” and says merely “the motivator,” the word citta in the original Sanskrit, as we have seen, refers to a consciousness and its accompanying mental factors. The mind that causes a revealing form to arise is a sensory consciousness and thus, here, citta is being used in its general sense to include all types of consciousness.  

A revealing form of the body or speech, then, takes on and makes known to others the ethical status and intensity of the sensory consciousness that causes it to arise. That sensory consciousness, in turn, is:

• Destructive if it is congruent with attachment (’dod-chags, Skt. rāga), hostility (zhe-sdang, Skt. dveṣa), or naivety (gti-mug, Skt. moha, closed-mindedness), as well as with no sense of values (ngo-tsha med-pa, Skt. ahrīkya) and having no scruples (khrel med-pa, Skt. anapatrāpya)
• Constructive if it is congruent with detachment (ma-chags-pa, Skt. alobha), lack of hostility (zhe-sdang med-pa, Skt. adveṣa, imperturbability), or lack of naivety (gti-mug med-pa, Skt. amoha), as well as with having a sense of values (ngo-tsha shes-pa, Skt. hrī) and having scruples (khrel yod-pa, Skt. apatrāpya)
• Unspecified if it is congruent with merely a deluded outlook toward a transitory network (’jig-lta, Skt. satkāyaḍṛṣṭi) or an extreme outlook (mthar-’dzin-pa’i lta-ba, Skt. antagrāhadṛṣṭi).

A deluded outlook toward a transitory network is a disturbing attitude that regards the five aggregates as “me” or “mine.” It is accompanied by the coarse form of grasping for an impossible “soul” of a person (gang-zag-gi bdag-’dzin, Skt. pudgalātmagrāha; grasping for a self of a person), one that is static, partless and can exist independently of the aggregates when liberated. 

An extreme outlook is a disturbing attitude that regards the continuum of the samsaric five aggregates as either lasting forever and having no end or as ending at death with no further rebirth. It is accompanied by both a deluded outlook toward a transitory network and the coarse form of grasping for an impossible “soul” of a person.  

Vasubandhu states in A Treasure House of Special Topics of Knowledge, Put in Verses (Chos mngon-pa’i mdzod-kyi tshig-le’ur byas-pa, Skt. Abhidharmakośa-kārikā) (IV.2ab) (Gretil ed., Derge Tengyur vol. 140, 10B–11A): 

As for them (the karmic impulses in actions of body and speech, they have) a revealing and a nonrevealing (form). The revealing (form) of the body is asserted as (the body’s) shape. 

(Skt.) te tu vijñaptyavijñaptī kāyavijñaptiriṣyate / saṃsthānaṃ 

(Tib.) de dag rnam rig rnam rig min/ /lus rnam rig byed dbyibs su ’dod/ 

Vasubandhu elaborates in his Autocommentary to “A Treasure House of Special Topics of Knowledge” (Skt. Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣyā, Tib. Chos mngon-pa’i mdzod-kyi bshad-pa) (Gretil ed. 192.21–25, Derge Tengyur vol. 140, 166B):

“As for them (the karmic impulses in actions of body and speech, they have) a revealing and a nonrevealing (form)” (means) that karmic impulses (in actions) of body and of speech each are to be known as having a functional nature as both a revealing and a nonrevealing (form). “The revealing (form) of the body is asserted as (the body’s) shape” (means) that the revealing (form) of the body is the shape it abides with, like this and like this, by means of the mind’s (Skt. citta) control of the body.

(Skt.) “te tu vijñaptyavijñaptī” te tu kāyavākkarmaṇī pratyekaṃ vijñaptyavijñaptisvabhāve veditavye / tatra tu “kāyavijñaptiriṣyate / saṃsthānaṃ” cittavaśena kāyasya tathā tathā saṃsthānaṃ kāyavijñaptiḥ /

(Tib.) /de dag rnam rig rnam rig min/ /lus dang ngag gi las de dag ni so sor rnam par rig byed dang / rnam par rig byed ma yin pa’i rang bzhin dag tu rig par bya’o/ /de la’ang / lus rnam rig byed dbyibs su ’dod/ /sems kyi dbang gis lus de dang de ltar gnas pa ni lus kyi rnam par rig byed yin no/

In A Commentary to “A Treasure House (of Special Topics of Knowledge)”: A Filigree of Abhidharma (Chos mngon-mdzod-kyi tshig-le’ur byas-pa’i ’grel-pa mngon-pa’i rgyan) (Sera Je Library ed., 294), Chim Jameyang (mChims ’Jam-pa’i dbyangs) gives more detail:

The revealing (form) of the body that goes (to another position), prostrates, takes a life and so on is asserted by the Vaibhashikas to be (something) distinct from the ripened body {and the enhanced body}. It is {substantially established as} the shape {of a body like that}.

(Tib.) lus kyi rnam par rig byed ni bye brag tu smra ba ’gro ba dang phyag ’tshal ba dang srog gcod pa la sogs pa rnam smin gyi lus {dang rgyas byung gi lus} las tha dad pa’i {lus de lta bu’i} dbyibs su {rdzas grub tu} ’dod do/

The ripened body (rnam-smin-gyi lus, Skt. vipākajarūpa) refers to the body that ripens from positive karmic potential (bsod-nams, Skt. pūṇya) or negative karmic potential (sdig-pa, Skt. pāpa). The enhanced body (rgyas-byung-gi lus, Skt. aupacayikarūpa) refers to this ripened body, which can be enhanced in health and strength by food, sleep and so on. 

Of the various types of causes and results that the Vaibhashikas assert, ripening causes (rnam-smin-gyi rgyu, Skt. vipākahetu) are constructive or destructive phenomena, such as positive or negative karmic potentials. They give rise to ripened results (rnam-smin-gyi ’bras-bu, Skt. vipākaphalam), which can only be unspecified phenomena (those that Buddha did not specify as either constructive or destructive), such as the physical body and other unspecified phenomena included in the five aggregates of a rebirth state. Thus, revealing forms, being constructive, destructive or unspecified, cannot be the exclusively unspecified ripened results of karmic potentials and so they cannot be equivalent to the ripened body with which one is born, which can only be unspecified. 

Further, according to the Vaibhashika tenets, all validly knowable phenomena, both nonstatic and static, are substantially established – in other words, established as substantial entities (rdzas-su grub-pa, Skt. dravyasiddha). A substantial entity (rdzas, Skt. dravya) is one whose existence is established by its ability to perform a function, which minimally is to serve as the natal source (rdzas, Skt. dravya) for the valid cognition of it. Note that the same Sanskrit and Tibetan terms are used for both “substantial entity” and “natal source.” All other Buddhist tenet systems refute that a static phenomenon can perform a function.

Vaibhashika is unique among the Buddhist tenet systems in asserting that shape and color, the defining characteristics of forms of physical phenomena that can be seen, are distinct, individual substantial entities. Neuroscience, as well, explains that shape and color are processed in different parts of the visual cortex of the brain, although in experience they are cognized as an integrated whole. Thus, Vaibhashika asserts that the ripened body and the shape of the body when prostrating and so on – equivalent to the revealing form of the body – are each a distinct substantial entity. 

Vasubandhu, Autocommentary (Gretil 200.12–14, Derge 172B), states:

A revealing form (of the body), however, is something that is an outflow (corresponding to its cause); it is appropriated (by the mind as its physical support) as it is something of the body.   

(Skt.) vijñaptistu naiḥṣyandikī /upāttā tu kāyikī /

(Tib.) /rnam par rig byed ni rgyu mthun pa las byung ba ste/ lus kyis ni zin pa yin no/

Vasubandhu, Autocommentary (Gretil 022.27–023.17, Derge 43A), defines “appropriated” (zin-pa, Skt. upātta): 

What is the meaning of “appropriated”? It (means) taken, by consciousness and mental factors, as the phenomenon that is their (physical) support (rten, Skt. adhiṣṭhāna), because of (the two: the mind and its physical support) being things that follow and conform with each other by means of both being either of benefit or harm (to each other). 

(Skt.) upāttamiti ko 'rthaḥ / yaccittacaittairadhiṣṭhānabhāvenopagṛhītamanugrahopaghātābhyāmanyonyānuvidhānāt /

(Tib.) /zin pa zhes bya ba’i don ci zhe na/ phan pa dang gnod pa dag gis phan tshun mthun par byed pa’i phyir sems dang sems las byung ba rnams kyis rten gyi dngos por nye bar gzung ba ste/

An outflow (rgyu-mthun-las byung-ba, Skt. niḥṣyanda) is a result that has come from a cause that it corresponds to in ethical status. Thus, Tibetan translates the Sanskrit term niḥṣyanda, outflow, as rgyu-mthun-las byung-ba, something that has come from a cause that it corresponds to.

Jinaputra Yashomitra, The Clarified Meaning (Gretil. ed., Derge 15B) explains:

“A revealing form (of the body), however, is something that is an outflow (corresponding to its cause)” because of (its) having followed in conformity (from its cause) by means of the force of it (its cause) throwing it.

“It is appropriated (by the mind as its physical support) as it is something of the body” has the meaning “as it is not something of the speech.” It is something of the body because of (its) existing as something not distinct from the great elements of the body. (A revealing form of the body) is something appropriated having (these bodily) great elements as its foundation. “It is not something of the speech” because of (speech) existing as something distinct from it (from the great elements of the body). 

(Skt.) vijñaptis tu naiṣyandikīti. ākṣepavaśenānuvṛtteḥ. upāttā tu kāyikīti. na vācikīty arthaḥ. kāyikī hi kāyamahābhūtāvinirbhāgavartitvāt tadāśrayabhūtānām upāttā. na tu vācikī. tadvinirbhāgavartitvāt.

(Tib.) / rnam par rig byed ni rgyu mthun pa las byung ba ste zhes bya ba ni ’phen pa’i dbang gis rjes su ’jug pa’i phyir ro/ /lus kyi ni zin pa yin no zhes bya ba ni ngag gi ni ma yin no zhes bya ba’i tha tshig ste/ lus kyi ni lus kyi ’byung ba chen po dang tha mi dad par ’jug pa’i phyir la de’i rten ’byung ba chen po rnams kyang zin pa yin pas so/ /ngag gi ma yin te/ de dag dang tha dad par ’jug pa’i phyir ro/

A revealing form of the body arises dependently (rgyur-byas-pa, Skt. upādāya) on the four great elements of the ripened body that serve as its simultaneously-arising generating cause (skyed-pa’i rgyu, Skt. jananahetu). Thus, the four great elements of the ripened body are the foundation (rten, Skt. āśraya) from which it arises. Since the ripened body, being a ripened result, is an unspecified phenomenon, its four great elements are also unspecified phenomena. The four great elements of the ripened body, as unspecified phenomena, are outflow (rgyu-mthun-las byung-ba, Skt. niḥṣyanda) elements – they arise from the four great elements of the immediately preceding moment of the ripened body.

A revealing form of the body, however, being constructive, destructive or unspecified, cannot be an outflow of something that, being a ripened result, is exclusively unspecified. The mind that is throwing the revealing form – “throwing” it in the sense of being that which causes it to arise in the sense of being that which motivates it – is constructive, destructive or unspecified in accord with the mental factors that together with a consciousness constitute this mind. Since the mind that is throwing the revealing form does so by appropriating the revealing form as its physical support, the revealing form is an outflow that corresponds to this mind as its cause. The revealing form corresponds to this mind in terms of the ethical status of this mind and thus it too is constructive, destructive or unspecified. 

Thus, a revealing form of the body depends on the unspecified great elements of the ripened body as its generating cause and foundation for its arising. However, a revealing form of the body does not take on the ethical status of the great elements that are its foundation. This is because a revealing form of the body is not an outflow of the great elements that are its foundation. A revealing form of the body is an outflow of the mind that takes the revealing form and thus the elements that constitute its foundation as its physical support and thus causes the revealing form to arise (motivates it).    

As we shall see in a later part of this series, the revealing form of speech is the sound of spoken syllables as the method by which a karmic action of speech is caused to occur. Like a revealing form of the body, a revealing form of speech is also an outflow corresponding to the ethical status of the mind that causes it to arise (motivates it). 

Furthermore, the revealing forms of the body and speech both depend on the unspecified great elements of the ripened body for their arising. A revealing form of the body, however, being a part of the body, is an appropriated form of physical phenomenon. In other words, a revealing form of the body is the physical support for the sensory consciousness (and its accompanying mental factors) of the person committing the karmic action of the body that the revealing form is causing to occur. In the case of a revealing form of speech, however, the sound of the spoken syllables that constitute the revealing form of speech is not a part of the body and therefore it is a non-appropriated form of physical phenomenon. In other words, a revealing form of speech is not the physical support for the consciousness (and its accompanying mental factors) of the person committing the karmic action of speech that the revealing form is causing to occur. To highlight this difference, Vasubandhu and Jinaputra Yashomitra specify that a revealing form of the body is something of the body, not something of the speech. 

The question is raised, If both the constructive, destructive or unspecified revealing form of the body (the body’s shape) and the exclusively unspecified ripened body itself arise dependently on the unspecified great elements of the ripened body that arise simultaneously with both, are the revealing form of the body and the ripened body mutually pervasive? In other words, do the ripened body and the revealing form of the body occupy the same space? 

Vasubandhu, Autocommentary (Gretil 200.16–21, Derge 172B–173A), analyzes:

Further, (the doubt is raised), Which is it, does a revealing (form), in arising, arise having brought about the perishing of the continuum of the previous shape or does it not (do that)? Out of those (two possibilities), if it itself arises having brought about the perishing (of the continuum of the previous shape), then because of (there being) a further continuing of a ripened form that has been interrupted, it would become a non-Vaibhashika (assertion). But out of those (two alternatives, if a revealing form arises) without (bringing about) the destruction (of the revealing form of the previous moment), how on one set of elements can there be established a pair of shapes? Then at that time there would (have to) be one (set of) outflow elements and another (set as well) that arose, dependent on which there was a revealing (form dependent on each).

If it were like that, then whichever portion (of elements), reliant on which the (newly arisen) revealing (form) is produced, it is by that portion that (the ripened body) would be become greater (in size), because of it (the ripened body) being pervaded by its great elements. But, if it (the ripened body) is not pervaded (by its great elements), how would it (the revealing form) be known by means of (just) a portion of the whole (ripened body)?

(The Vaibhashika position is that) because of the existence of interstitial space (in between the particles) of the (ripened) body, there is room for it (for the revealing form).   

(Skt.) kiṃ punariyaṃ vijñaptirutpadyamānā pūrvakasya saṃsthānasya saṃtānaṃ bādhitvotpadyate utāho na / kiñcātaḥ yadi bādhitvotpadyate / vipākarūpasyocchinnasya punaḥ pravandhādavaibhāṣikīyaṃ prāpnoti / athābādhitvā / kathamekasminbhūtasaṃghāte saṃsthānadvayaṃ sidhyati / anyānyeva tāni naiḥṣyandikāni tadānīmupajāyante yānyupādāya vijñaptirbhavati / evaṃ tarhi yadyadevāṅgaṃ niśrityotpadyate vijñaptistena tenāṅgena mahīyasā bhavitavyam / tanmahābhūtairabhivyāpanāt / anabhivyāpane ca punaḥ kathaṃ kṛtsnāṅgena vijñapayet / śuṣiratvāt kāyasyāsti teṣāmavakāśaḥ /

(Tib.) yang ci rnam par rig byed ’di skye ba na dbyibs snga ma’i rgyud bshig nas skye’am/ ’on te ma yin/ de las cir ’gyur/ gal te bshig nas skye na ni/ /rnam par smin pa’i gzugs chad pa yang rgyun chags pa’i phyir ’di bye brag tu smra ba ma yin par ’gyur ro/ /’on te ma bshig par skye na ni ji ltar ’byung ba’i tshogs gcig la dbyibs gnyis ’grub par ’gyur/ de’i tshe gang dag rgyur byas nas rnam par rig byed skye bar ’gyur ba rgyu mthun pa las byung ba’i ’byung ba chen po gzhan dang / gzhan de dag skye bar ’gyur ro/ /de dag de lta na ni ’o na de’i ’byung ba chen po de dag gis mngon par khyab pa’i phyir yan lag dang gang dang gang la brten nas rnam par rig byed skye bar ’gyur ba’i yan lag de dang de chen por ’gyur ro/ /mngon par ma khyab na ni ji ltar na yan lag zad par gyis rnam par rig par byed par ’gyur/ lus la gseb yod pa’i phyir de dag gi go skabs yod do/

The structure of the logic Vasubandhu uses is as follows. Based on the premise that both the ripened body and the revealing form of the body (the body’s shape when implementing a method for causing a karmic action of the body to take place) arise dependently on the same set of outflow great elements – namely, the great elements of the ripened body that are an outflow of the great elements of previous moments of the ripened body – then if the ripened body and the revealing form of the body occupy the same space, there are only two possibilities of how this could happen. The two possibilities are that the two occupy the same space, with the arising of a newly presently-happening revealing form (such as that of prostrating) causing the continuum of the previous, no-longer-happening different revealing form (such as that of lighting an offering candle) either (1) to perish (in the sense of it no longer appearing) or (2) not to perish (in the sense of it continuing to appear).

In the first case, the arising of the revealing form of prostrating would not only cause the continuum of the revealing form of lighting the offering candle to stop appearing, but this arising would cause the continuum of the great elements of the ripening body on which the revealing form of lighting an offering candle depended for its arising also to stop appearing. This would happen because both the ripened body at the time of lighting an offering candle and the revealing form of the body lighting it arose dependently on the same set of great elements. Thus, just as the shape of the body lighting an offering candle would no longer continue to appear when the shape of the body prostrating arose, likewise the great elements of the ripened body on which the shape of the body when lighting the offering candle depended would also no longer continue to appear at that time. In such a case, the great elements of the body prostrating would not be an outflow of the great elements of the body lighting an offering candle, and this would contradict the Vaibhashika assertion that the great elements of the ripened body are outflow elements corresponding to, and in an unbroken continuum from, the great elements of the previous moment of the ripened body. 

In the second case, for the revealing form (the shape) of the body lighting the offering candle to continue to appear when the revealing form of the body prostrating arises and appears, the revealing form of the body lighting the candle would need to continue to arise by continuing to depend on the great elements of the ripened body. For this to happen, the two revealing forms would need to depend for their arising on either (1) the same set of great elements or (2) two simultaneously arising sets of great elements. 

The first alternative is impossible: two revealing forms (two different shapes of the body) cannot simultaneously arise by depending on the same set of great elements, with each revealing form implementing a different method for causing a different karmic action to arise. It is not possible for one shape or position of a hand to simultaneously light an offering candle and prostrate. 

The second alternative is also impossible. Suppose two sets of great elements of the ripened body arose simultaneously, with one set depended upon for the arising of the revealing form of the body prostrating and the second set depended upon for the arising of the revealing form of the body lighting an offering candle. There are two possibilities of how this could occur: either (1) each of the two sets of great elements would need to pervade the entire ripened body or (2) each of the two sets of great elements would need to occupy two different parts of the ripened body.

The first case is impossible: it is impossible for two sets of great elements to simultaneously occupy the same space, with one set depended upon for the arising and appearing of the revealing form of the body prostrating and the second set depended upon for the arising and appearing of the revealing form of the body lighting an offering candle. That would result in the ripened body increasing in size and weight with each new shape it took when engaged in each new karmic action. This does not occur. 

The second case is also impossible: it is impossible for the shape of the body prostrating, for instance, to be seen by seeing only a part of the ripened body – the part of the ripened body occupied by the great elements on which the revealing form of the body prostrating depended for its arising – without seeing the entire ripened body prostrating. Because of this fact, then despite the revealing form of the body (the body’s shape) and the ripened body constituting separate substantial entities (since both perform the function of serving as the natal source of cognition of them), it seems as though the revealing form of the body can only appear and be cognized simultaneously with the great elements of the ripened body on which it depends also appearing and being cognized. I have not, however, found a reference stating this point in the literature, but it seems a reasonable assertion. 

Thus, in order not to contradict the premise that the ripened body and the revealing form of the body both arise dependently on the same simultaneously arising great elements of the ripened body and that the revealing form and the ripened body each constitute a separate substantial entity, the revealing form cannot arise by occupying the same space that the ripened body does. Since, according to Vaibhashika, the particles that comprise the ripened body are partless, which means they do not have contact with each other – otherwise, they would have one part that makes contact and another part that does not make contact – there is interstitial space between the particles of the ripened body. Vaibhashika therefore asserts that the revealing form of the body arises in this interstitial space between the particles of the ripened body while depending on the ripened body’s great elements that arise simultaneously with it.

Chim Jampeyang, A Filigree of Abhidharma (294), summarizes the conclusion of Vasubandhu’s analysis:

If it (the revealing form of the body) were the ripened body, it would be impossible for it to become constructive or destructive, because {the ripened body} is an unspecified phenomenon. Because of that, then at the time of prostrating and so on, there is a revealing (form) of the body that is established as its shape, from the top of the head to (the bottom of) the feet. Because that (shape), as the revealing (form), is transparent like light and because it fills the interstitial spaces of the ripened body (when it prostrates and so on), they (the Vaibhashikas) assert that it (the ripened body) does not become larger and it also does not become heavier, like a fire that has entered and pervaded (the space between the trees in) a forest.

(Tib.) ’di ltar rnam smin gyi lus nyid yin na rig byed dge mi dge mi srid par ’gyur te/ de ni lung ma bstan yin pa’i phyir ro/ de’i phyir phyag ’tshal ba la sogs pa’i tshe lus kyi rig byed dbyibs su grub pa zhig spyi bo’i gtsug nas rkang pa’i bar du yod la/ de ni rig byed ’od ltar dang ba’i phyir dang/ rnam smin gyi lus kyi gseb tu tshud pa’i phyir che bar yang mi gyur lci bar yang mi ’gyur zhes ’dod de nags la me zhugs pa bzhin no zhes zer ro/ 

Although the revealing forms fill the space between the particles of the ripened body, like a fire filling the space between the trees in a forest, the revealing forms do not make the ripened body larger or heavier, just as a fire in a forest does not make the forest larger or weigh more. 

Because a revealing form in between the particles of the ripened body is not part of the particles that comprise the ripened body, it does not increase the size or weight of the particles of the body. Nevertheless, a revealing form is comprised of the four elements: earth, water, fire and wind. Sthiramati, in The Meaning of the Facts, An Annotated Subcommentary to (Vasubandhu’s) “Autocommentary to ‘A Treasure House of Special Topics of Knowledge’” (Chos mngon-pa mdzod-kyi bshad-pa’i rgya-cher ’grel-pa don-gyi de-kho-na-nyid, Skt. Abhidharmakośa-bhāṣyā-ṭīkā-tattvārtha) (Derge Tengyur vol. 209, 18A), states:

The earth (element) in a revealing form impedes (the presence and motion of material objects).   

(Tib.) sa rnam par rig byed ni thogs pa dang bcas pa yin no/ 

Because a revealing form contains the four elements, it is comprised of particles, since particles are a composite of eight substances: earth, water, fire, wind, sight, smell, taste and physical sensation. Because a revealing form is comprised of the four elements, it can be seen.

As for what exactly a shape (dbyibs, Skt. saṃsthāna) is, we need to look at the Vaibhashika presentation of visible forms. Vasubandhu states in Treasure House (I.10a) (Gretil ed., Derge 2A):

Visible form is twofold and twentyfold. 

(Skt.) rūpaṃ dvidhā viṃśatidhā

(Tib.) gzugs rnam gnyis dang rnam nyi shu/

Vasubandhu, Autocommentary (Gretil 6.08–22, Derge 30A–31B), explains:

“Visible form is twofold”: color and shape. Out of that, color is of four types: blue and so on. The other (colors) are divisions of them. Shape is of eight types: long and so on up to uneven. It is also spoken of further as the cognitive stimulators that are visible forms. It is also “twentyfold” like this: “Blue, yellow, red, white, long, short, round, square, high, low, even, uneven, cloudy, smokey, dusty, misty, shaded, sunny, luminous and darkened.” Some cite twenty-one, with the sky as one (more) color. 

Of these, “even” (means) regular in shape, “uneven” (means) irregular in shape. “Misty” (means) foggy. “Sunny” (means) sunlit. “Luminous” (means) lit with the radiance of the moon, stars, (phosphorescent) herbs and gems. “Shaded” (means still) having the visibility that forms have. Its opposite is darkened. Because of the rest being easily intelligible, they have not been explicitly glossed. 

The cognitive stimulators that are visible forms constitute (a trilemma): 

[1] Something that is a color and does not exist as something that is (also) a shape: (namely) what is called blue, yellow, red, white, shaded, sunny, luminous, or darkened 

[2] Something that is a shape and is not something that is (also) a color: (namely) that section (of the list), long and so on, that are in the nature of a revealing (form) of the body

[3] Something that can be discriminated as both: (namely) the remainder (items constituting the) cognitive stimulators that are visible forms: (namely, cloudy, smokey, dusty and misty).

Some say, “Blue and so on are seen as divisions of long and so on,” and so (claim that only) sunny and luminous exist as something that is a color.

(Sautrantikas ask) How, in fact, can one substantial entity exist as something that is both (a color and a shape)? 

(Vaibhashika answers) Because there can be a discrimination (of some items) among them as both. Here the word “vid” is in the meaning of “discrimination” and not in the meaning of “exist.” 

(Sautrantika objects) Well then, the absurd conclusion is that the revealing (forms) of the body as well (are both colors and shapes).

The cognitive stimulators that are visible forms have (now) been discussed.  

(Skt.) rūpaṃ dvidhā varṇaḥ saṃsthānaṃ ca / tatra varṇaścaturvidho nīlādiḥ / tadbhedā anye / samsthānamaṣṭavidhaṃ dīrghadi visātāntam / tadeva rūpāyatanaṃ punarucyate / vimśatidhā tadyathā nīlaṃ pītaṃ lohitamavadātaṃ dīrghaṃ hrasvaṃ vṛttaṃ parimaṇḍalaṃ unnatamavanataṃ sātaṃ visātaṃ abhraṃ dhūmo rajo mahikā cchāyā ātapaḥ ālokaḥ andhakāramiti / kecinnabhaścaikavarṇamiti ekaviṃśatiṃ saṃpaṭhanti / tatra sātaṃ samasthānam / visātaṃ viṣama sthānam mahikā nīhāraḥ / ātapaḥ sūryaprabhā / ālokaḥ candratārakāgnyoṣadhimaṇīnaṃ prabhā / chāyā yatra rūpāṇāṃ darśanam / viparyayādandhakāram / śeṣaṃ sugamatvānna vipañcitam / asti rūpāyatanaṃ varṇato vidyate na saṃsthānataḥ nīlapītalohitavadātacchāyātapālokāndhakārākhyam / asti saṃsthānato na varṇataḥ / ghādīnāṃ pradeṣaḥ kāyavijñaptisvabhāvaḥ /  astyubhayathā / pariśiṣṭaṃ rūpāyatanam / ātapālokāveva varṇato vidyete ityapare / "dṛśyate hi nīlādīnaṃ dīrghādipariccheda" iti / kathaṃ punarekaṃ dravyamubhayathā vidyate / astyubhayasya tatra prajñānāt / jñānārtho hyeṣa vidirna sattārthaḥ / kāyavijñaptāvapi tarhi prasaṅgaḥ / uktaṃ rūpāyatanaṃ //

(Tib.) gzugs rnam gnyis dang / kha dog dang / dbyibs so/ /de la kha dog ni rnam pa bzhi ste/ sngon po la sogs pa’o/ /gzhan dag ni de’i bye brag go/ /dbyibs ni rnam pa brgyad de/ ring po la sogs pa nas phya le ba ma yin pa la thug pa’o/ /yang gzugs kyi skye mched de nyid/ rnam pa nyi shu zhes bya ste/ ’di lta ste/ sngon po dang / ser po dang / dkar po dang / dmar po dang / ring po dang / thung ngu dang / lham pa dang / zlum po dang / mthon po dang / dma’ ba dang / phya le ba dang / phya le ba ma yin pa dang / sprin dang / du ba dang / rdul dang / khug rna dang / grib ma dang / nyi ma dang / snang ba dang / mun pa’o/ /kha cig ni nam mkha’ la kha dog gcig dang rnam pa nyi shu rtsa gcig tu ’don to/ /de la phya le ba ni dbyibs mnyam pa’o/ /phya le ba ma yin pa ni dbyibs mi mnyam pa’o/ /khug rna ni lho bur ro/ /nyi ma ni nyi ma’i ’od do/ /snang ba ni zla ba dang skar ma dang me dang sman dang nor bu rnams kyi ’od dag go/ /grib ma ni gang na gzugs rnams snang ba’o/ /de las bzlog pa ni mun pa’o/ /lhag ma ni brda phrad par sla bas rnam par ma phye ba’o/ /gzugs kyi skye mched kha dog tu yod la dbyibs su med pa yang yod de/ sngon po dang / ser po dang / dmar po dang / dkar po dang / grib ma dang / nyi ma dang / snang ba dang / mun pa zhes bya’o/ /dbyibs su yod la kha dog tu med pa yang yod de/ ring po la sogs pa’i phyogs lus kyi rnam par rig byed kyi ngo bo nyid do/ /gnyi gar yod pa yang yod de/ gzugs kyi skye mched lhag ma’o/ /gzhan dag na re/ sngon po la sogs pa dang ring po la sogs par yongs su chad par snang bas na nyi ma dang / snang ba kho na kha dog tu yod do zhes zer ro/ /ji ltar na rdzas gcig la gnyi gar yod ce na/ de la gnyi ga mngon pa’i phyir te/ yod pa ’di ni shes pa’i don yin gyi yod pa’i don ni ma yin no/ /’o na ni lus kyi rnam par rig byed la’ang thal bar ’gyur ro/ /gzugs kyi skye mched bshad zin to/ 

In the sentence, “Something that is a color and does not exist as something that is (also) a shape,” the Sanskrit word vidyate is used in the sense of “to exist.” But Vasubandhu points out that vid, the root of the verb, vidyate, has two meanings, “to be discriminated” and “to exist.” In the sentence, “Something that can be discriminated as both,” the Sanskrit word vidyate has the meaning “can be discriminated.” 

Jinaputra Yashomitra, The Clarified Meaning (Gretil 25, 26, Derge 21A–B, 22A–B), clarifies some of Vasubandhu’s points:

“Visible form is twofold” (means) cognitive objects of the eyes have two features because they have the divisions of colors and shapes. Because of being something well-known in the world, then without speaking of its self-nature, only its divisions are mentioned. “Color is of four types, blue and so on” (refers to) the colors blue, yellow, white and red. “The other (colors) are divisions of them” (refers to) cloudy and so on. Others declare that “the other (colors) are divisions of them” (means) “from particular items that are mixtures of the four colors, blue and so on, the colors (such as) green and so forth also arise, not just cloudy.” A shape is a particular type of figure. Further, when it is divided by means of a division of the conglomerate of what are included, then it is “twentyfold like this: blue, yellow and so on. Shape is of eight types: long and so on up to uneven.” The other twelve types are colors. Thus, it is twentyfold….  

The intended meaning of the Vaibhashikas here is that the cognition of blue and so on or the cognition of sunny and so on occurs without reliance on shape. Also, cognition of the revealing (form) of the body occurs without reliance on color; and also, cognition of the other items in the cognitive stimulators that are visible forms occurs with reliance on color and shape.

(Skt.) rūpaṃ dvividheti. cakṣuṣo 'rtho varṇasaṃsthānabhedād dviḥprakāraḥ. lokapratītatvāt tasya svalakṣaṇaṃ anuktvā prabheda eva kathyate. varṇaś caturvidho nīlādir iti. nīlalohitapītāvadātā varṇāḥ. tadbhedā anya iti abhrādayaḥ. apare vyācakṣate. tadbhedā anya iti nīlādivarṇacatuṣṭayasaṃparkaviśeṣāt kākāṇḍavarṇādayo 'pi jāyante. na kevalam abhrādya iti. saṃsthānam ākṛtiviśeṣaḥ. punas tad evāntargaṇikena bhedena bhidyate. viṃśatidheti. tadyathā nīlapītādi. saṃsthānam aṣṭavidhaṃ dīrghādivisātāntaṃ. śeṣo dvādaśavidho varṇa iti viṃśatidhā….  vaibhāṣikāṇām ayam abhiprāyaḥ. nīlādigrahaṇam ātapālokagrahaṇaṃ vā saṃsthānanirapekṣaṃ pravartate. kāyavijñaptigrahaṇaṃ tu varṇanirapekṣaṃ. pariśiṣṭarūpāyatanagrahaṇaṃ tu varṇasaṃsthānāpekṣaṃ pravartata iti.

(Tib.) /gzugs rnam gnyis zhes bya ba ni mig gi don kha dog dang dbyibs kyi bye brag gis rnam pa gnyis yin no/ /’jig rten na grags pa’i phyir de’i rang gi mtshan nyid ma bshad par kha dog ni rnam pa bzhi ste sngon po la sogs pa’o zhes rab tu dbye ba kho na brjod de kha dog sngon po dang ser po dang dmar po dang dkar po dag yin no/ /gzhan dag ni de’i bye brag go zhes bya ba la gzhan dag ces bya ba ni sprin la sogs pa’o/ /gzhan dag na re gzhan dag ni de’i bye brag go zhes bya ba ni sngon po la sogs pa kha dog bzhi phrad pa’i khyad par las kha dog ljang gu la sogs pa yang ’byung bas sprin la sogs pa ’ba’ zhig tu ni ma zad do zhes zer ro/ /dbyibs zhes bya ba ni dbyibs kyi bye brag go/ /yang de dag nyid khongs su gtogs pa’i tshogs kyi bye brag gis rnam pa nyi shu zhes bya ba tha dad par ’gyur te ’di lta ste ring po la sogs pa phya le ma yin pa la thug pa’i bar dbyibs rnam pa brgyad dang lhag ma sngon po la sogs pa kha dog rnam pa bcu gnyis te rnam pa nyi shu yin no/ ….   /bye brag tu smra ba rnams kyi bsam pa ni sngon po la sogs pa ’am snang ba la sogs pa tsam ’dzin pa de ni dbyibs la mi ltos par ’byung la lus kyi rnam par rig byed ’dzin pa ni kha dog la mi ltos par ’byung gi gzugs kyi skye mched lhag ma ’dzin pa ni kha dog dang dbyibs la ltos nas ’byung ngo snyam pa ’di yin no/ 

Thus, even though cognition of the colors “sunny” and so on rely on cognition of both color and shape, that does not lead to the absurd conclusion and internal contradiction that color and shape constitute a single substantial entity. They are still two individual substantial entities according to Vaibhashika. 

In Autocommentary (Gretil 194.15–195.15, Derge 167B–168B), Vasubandhu presents the lengthy Vaibhashika refutation of the Sautrantika assertion that shape and color do not constitute separate substantial entities. Sautrantika asserts that shape is a conglomeration of colored particles and not just a single, colored particle. This will be discussed in more detail in a later part of this series. Chim Jampeyang (296) states the Vaibhashika position succinctly:

The Vaibhashikas assert the revealing (form) of the body as its shape, which is a different substantial entity from its color.

(Tib.) bye brag tu smra bas lus kyi rig byed kha dog las rdzas tha dad pa’i dbyibs su ’dod pa/

Vasubandhu, A Treasure House (Gretil ed., Derge 11A), completes verse IV.2cd:

It (a revealing form of the body) is not something that goes (to another position). Why? As something affected (by causes and conditions), it is momentary because of (its) perishing.

(Skt.) na gatiryasmātsaṃskṛtaṃ kṣaṇikaṃ vyayāt //

(Tib.) /’gro min gang phyir ’dus byas ni/ /skad cig ma yin ’jig phyir ro //  

Vasubandhu, Autocommentary (Gretil 192.25–193.06, Derge 166B), elaborates:

Some others (claim), “It is something that goes (to another position).” Those (Vatsiputriyas) say, “A karmic impulse (in an action) of body is (a karmic impulse) of something that is moving itself, not of something that is not moving itself.” But “it is not something that goes (to another position). Why? As something affected (by causes and conditions), it is momentary.” 

What is it that this word “a moment” (is given to)? That which, with the obtainment of its identity nature, (self-)destructs without interval – something that possesses that (characteristic) is called “a momentary one,” like (an ascetic possessing a staff is named) “a staffed one.” “All (phenomena) that are affected (by causes and conditions) are not (things that last) for a long time” (means that) that, because of which something has arisen is that, because of which it is disintegrated. Passage to another location is something unconnected with it. Because of that, a karmic impulse (in an action) of the body is not something that goes (to another position). If this is the case, then the momentariness of all (affected phenomena) is established. Know that it is established like that. Why? “Because of” the definite “perishing” of (all) affected phenomenon. 

(Skt.) gatirityapare / prasyandamānasya hi kāyakarma no 'prasyandamānasyeti / ta ucyante “na gatiryasmātsaṃskṛtaṃ kṣaṇikaṃ” ko 'yaṃ kṣaṇo nāma / ātmalābho 'nantravināśī / so 'syāstīti kṣaṇikam / daṇḍakavat / sarva hi saṃskṛtamātmalābhā dūrdhvaṃ na bhavatīti yatraiva jātaṃ tatraiva dhvasyate / tasyāyuktā deśāntarasaṃkrāntiḥ / tasmānna gatiḥ kāyakarma / syādetadeva yadi sarvasya kṣaṇikatvaṃ sidhyet / siddhamevaitat viddhi / kutaḥ / saṃskṛtasyāvaśyaṃ / “vyayāt” 

(Tib.) / gzhan dag na re ’gro ba yin te/ lus g.yo ba las yin gyi mi g.yo ba ni ma yin pa’i phyir ro zhes zer te/ de dag la/ ’gro min gang phyir ’dus byas ni/ /skad cig pa yin zhes bya ba brjod do/ /skad cig ces bya ba ’di ci zhe na/ bdag nyid du red ma thag tu ’jig pa’o/ /de ’di la yod pas na skad cig pa ste dbyug pa bzhin no/ /’dus byas thams cad bdag nyid thob pa las phan chad du med pa’i phyir gang du skyes pa de nyid du ’jig par ’gyur ro/ /de ni yul gzhan du ’pho bar rig pa ma yin te/ de lta bas na lus kyi las ni ’gro ba ma yin no/ /gal te thams cad skad cig par grub par gyur na ni de de lta yin no/ /’di’i grub pa kho nar khong du chud par gyis shig /ga las she na/ ’dus byas ni gdon mi za bar ’jig phyir ro/ 

Since the further explanations of this passage in Autocommentary, Yashomitra and Chim Jampeyang are quite extensive, let us just summarize. 

According to the Vaibhashikas, the revealing form of the karmic impulse of the body is the shape of the body while implementing a method for causing a karmic action of the body to take place. In refuting that such a phenomenon is something that can move from place to place and thus change position during the action, Vasubandhu is refuting the assertions of the Buddhist Vatsiputriya (gNas-ma’i bu’i sde-pa, Skt. Vātsīputrīya) school. He is not addressing Nagarjuna’s Madhyamaka assertion of the revealing form of the karmic impulse of the body as being the motion or movement of the body while implementing a method for causing the action to occur. In fact, it is questionable whether Vasubandhu was even aware of Nagarjuna’s presentation, since he neither mentions nor refutes it in his texts. 

According to the Vaibhashikas, all phenomena that are affected by causes and conditions are momentary. By momentary, they mean that they last for just a moment. Their causes bring about their obtaining of their identity-natures (bdag-nyid rnyed-pa, Skt. ātmalabha) – in other words, the establishment of them in the nature of what they are – and bring about, as well, their automatically perishing at the end of that moment. No further cause is necessary for them to perish. Each moment, then, is a unique substantial entity. Momentariness, then, is the nature of revealing forms as a type of affected phenomenon. Thus, in the course of the implementation of a method for causing a karmic action of body to take place, there is a sequence of individual revealing forms, one in each moment, as the body changes shape as it changes position and location during the course of implementing this method. 

According to the Vatsiputriyas, not all phenomena that are affected by causes and conditions are momentary in the way that the Vaibhashikas assert. Only types of consciousness, mental factors, sound, flames, lightning and waterfalls arise and perish as unique substantial entities in each moment. Other forms of physical phenomena, such as the shape of the body, as the revealing form of the body while causing an action to take place, lasts as a substantial entity for several moments throughout the course of the action, as the body’s shape goes from one position to another and from one place to another. For the revealing form of that shape to perish at the conclusion of the action requires another cause – a different cause from the one that initially brought about this revealing form. 

Vasubandhu refutes this explanation by arguing that, in order for the body to change positions and go from one place to another, its shape would have to transform. It is contradictory for something substantial to last for many moments, to remain the same substantial entity and also to change positions and locations. To last for many moments without changing leads to the absurd conclusion that such a substantial phenomenon is a static, unaffected phenomenon, which contradicts the Vatsiputriya assertion that it is an affected phenomenon. Therefore, Vaibhashika asserts that all affected phenomena – namely, all nonstatic phenomena – must be momentary. They simultaneously arise and perish.

It is because a revealing form is momentary that a revealing form cannot be enhanced. Thus, although a revealing form has great elements and something that can be enhanced must contain great elements; nevertheless, as Sthiramati, The Meaning of the Facts (Derge 19A), explains:

The great elements of something that can be enhanced subsequently continually maintain the continuum (of what it supports).

(Tib.) rgyas pa pa las byung ba'i ’byung ba chen po dag ni rgyun chags par rjes su ’jug pa/

Because a revealing form is momentary, the great elements that constitute that revealing form as what they support are also momentary. Something that can be enhanced needs to last for a long interval during which they grow stronger or larger – by eating healthy food, for instance.

The revealing form of the body asserted by the Vaibhashikas as a compelled, compulsive karmic impulse of the body is:

• The shape of the body while implementing a method for causing a karmic action of the body to take place
• A separate substantial entity from the color of the body
• Not the body that is the ripened result of karmic potential, which is exclusively unspecified
• Dependent on the outflow elements of the ripened body, which function as its simultaneously arising generating cause and which thus serve as the foundation from which they arise 
• Transparent like light and filling the interstitial spaces between the particles of the ripened body
• Comprised of the four great elements 
• Caused to arise (motivated) by a sensory consciousness that is focused on the body and that has congruent with it the mental factors of an urge (a non-karmic impulse for an action of the body), a constructive or destructive disturbing emotion or an unspecified disturbing attitude, and so on   
• An incited karmic impulse only when preceded by an inciting karmic impulse
• Appropriated as the physical support for the mind and mental factors that cause it to arise
• An outflow corresponding to its cause – namely, corresponding to the ethical status of the mind and mental factors that cause it to arise 
• Thus, destructive, constructive or unspecified
• Momentary and thus arising and perishing in the same moment
• Therefore, not possible to be enhanced
• Not something that changes position as it implements a method for causing a karmic action of the body to take place.